A gene regulatory network combining Pax3/7, Sox10 and Mitf generates diverse pigment cell types in medaka and zebrafish.

Neural crest cells generate numerous derivatives, including pigment cells, and are a model for studying how fate specification from multipotent progenitors is controlled. In mammals, the core gene regulatory network for melanocytes (their only pigment cell type) contains three transcription factors, Sox10, Pax3 and Mitf, with the latter considered a master regulator of melanocyte development. In teleosts, which have three to four pigment cell types (melanophores, iridophores and xanthophores, plus leucophores e.g. in medaka), gene regulatory networks governing fate specification are poorly understood, although Mitf function is considered conserved. Here, we show that the regulatory relationships between Sox10, Pax3 and Mitf are conserved in zebrafish, but the role for Mitf is more complex than previously emphasized, affecting xanthophore development too. Similarly, medaka Mitf is necessary for melanophore, xanthophore and leucophore formation. Furthermore, expression patterns and mutant phenotypes of pax3 and pax7 suggest that Pax3 and Pax7 act sequentially, activating mitf expression. Pax7 modulates Mitf function, driving co-expressing cells to differentiate as xanthophores and leucophores rather than melanophores. We propose that pigment cell fate specification should be considered to result from the combinatorial activity of Mitf with other transcription factors.

Helix-Stabilized Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Delivery of Antisense Morpholino Oligomers: Relationships among Helicity, Cellular Uptake, and Antisense Activity.

The secondary structures of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) influence their properties including their cell-membrane permeability, tolerability to proteases, and intracellular distribution. Herein, we developed helix-stabilized arginine-rich peptides containing α,α-disubstituted α-amino acids and their conjugates with antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs), to investigate the relationships among the helicity of the peptides, cellular uptake, and antisense activity of the peptide-conjugated PMOs. We demonstrated that helical CPPs can efficiently deliver the conjugated PMO into cells compared with nonhelical CPPs and that their antisense activities are synergistically enhanced in the presence of an endosomolytic reagent or an endosomal escape domain peptide.

Distinct interactions of Sox5 and Sox10 in fate specification of pigment cells in medaka and zebrafish.

Mechanisms generating diverse cell types from multipotent progenitors are fundamental for normal development. Pigment cells are derived from multipotent neural crest cells and their diversity in teleosts provides an excellent model for studying mechanisms controlling fate specification of distinct cell types. Zebrafish have three types of pigment cells (melanocytes, iridophores and xanthophores) while medaka have four (three shared with zebrafish, plus leucophores), raising questions about how conserved mechanisms of fate specification of each pigment cell type are in these fish. We have previously shown that the Sry-related transcription factor Sox10 is crucial for fate specification of pigment cells in zebrafish, and that Sox5 promotes xanthophores and represses leucophores in a shared xanthophore/leucophore progenitor in medaka. Employing TILLING, TALEN and CRISPR/Cas9 technologies, we generated medaka and zebrafish sox5 and sox10 mutants and conducted comparative analyses of their compound mutant phenotypes. We show that specification of all pigment cells, except leucophores, is dependent on Sox10. Loss of Sox5 in Sox10-defective fish partially rescued the formation of all pigment cells in zebrafish, and melanocytes and iridophores in medaka, suggesting that Sox5 represses Sox10-dependent formation of these pigment cells, similar to their interaction in mammalian melanocyte specification. In contrast, in medaka, loss of Sox10 acts cooperatively with Sox5, enhancing both xanthophore reduction and leucophore increase in sox5 mutants. Misexpression of Sox5 in the xanthophore/leucophore progenitors increased xanthophores and reduced leucophores in medaka. Thus, the mode of Sox5 function in xanthophore specification differs between medaka (promoting) and zebrafish (repressing), which is also the case in adult fish. Our findings reveal surprising diversity in even the mode of the interactions between Sox5 and Sox10 governing specification of pigment cell types in medaka and zebrafish, and suggest that this is related to the evolution of a fourth pigment cell type.

Expression pattern of sonic hedgehog signaling and calcitonin gene-related peptide in the socket healing process after tooth extraction.

Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), a neural development inducer, plays a significant role in the bone healing process. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), a neuropeptide marker of sensory nerves, has been demonstrated to affect bone formation. The roles of SHH signaling and CGRP-positive sensory nerves in the alveolar bone formation process have been unknown. Here we examined the expression patterns of SHH signaling and CGRP in mouse socket by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence analysis. We found that the expression level of SHH peaked at day 3 and was then decreased at 5 days after tooth extraction. CGRP, PTCH1 and GLI2 were each expressed in a similar pattern with their highest expression levels at day 5 and day 7 after tooth extraction. CGRP and GLI2 were co-expressed in some inflammatory cells and bone forming cells. In some areas, CGRP-positive neurons expressed GLI2. In conclusion, SHH may affect alveolar bone healing by interacting with CGRP-positive sensory neurons and thus regulate the socket's healing process after tooth extraction.

Ring-opening fluorination of bicyclic azaarenes.

We have discovered a ring-opening fluorination of bicyclic azaarenes. Upon treatment of bicyclic azaarenes such as pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridines with electrophilic fluorinating agents, fluorination of the aromatic ring is followed by a ring-opening reaction. Although this overall transformation can be classified as an electrophilic fluorination of an aromatic ring, it is a novel type of fluorination that results in construction of tertiary carbon-fluorine bonds. The present protocol can be applied to a range of bicyclic azaarenes, tolerating azines and a variety of functional groups. Additionally, mechanistic studies and enantioselective fluorination have been examined.

Identification of 2,6-Disubstituted 3H-Imidazo[4,5-b]pyridines as Therapeutic Agents for Dysferlinopathies through Phenotypic Screening on Patient-Derived Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Dysferlinopathies, which are muscular diseases caused by mutations in the dysferlin gene, remain serious medical problems due to the lack of therapeutic agents. Herein, we report the design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationships of a 2,6-disubstituted 3H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine series, which was identified from the phenotypic screening of chemicals that increase the level of dysferlin in myocytes differentiated from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Optimization studies with cell-based phenotypic assay led to the identification of a highly potent compound, 19, with dysferlin elevation effects at double-digit nanomolar concentrations. In addition, the molecular target of our chemical series was identified as tubulin, through a tubulin polymerization assay and a competitive binding assay using a photoaffinity labeling probe.

A Synthetic Route to Sodium α-Aminoalkanesulfinates and Their Application in the Generation of α-Aminoalkyl Radicals for Radical Addition Reactions.

The synthesis of sodium α-aminoalkanesulfinates and their synthetic utility as α-aminoalkyl radical precursors are reported. A variety of α-aminoalkanesulfinates were readily obtained from the reaction between the anions of N-Boc-protected alkylamines and 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octanebis(sulfur dioxide). Treatment of sodium α-aminoalkanesulfinates with (diacetoxyiodo)benzene easily generated the corresponding α-aminoalkyl radicals under mild conditions, which were then applied in radical 1,2-addition to imines, radical 1,4-addition to electron-deficient olefins, and radical addition/cyclization to 2-isocyanobiphenyls.

Role of Neurokinin 3 Receptor Signaling in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The neurokinin 3 receptor (NK-3R) is differentially expressed in the central nervous system including cases of human oral squamous cell carcinoma. However, the role of NK-3R signaling in oral squamous cell carcinoma is not well known. MATERIALS AND METHODS: NK-3R expression in surgically resected oral squamous cell carcinoma was examined immunohistochemically and the strength of the expression was quantified. We evaluated the function of NK-3R signaling using NK-3R antagonist in human oral squamous cell carcinoma bone invasion mouse model. RESULTS: NK-3R was significantly expressed in tumor cells that had invaded the bone matrix compared to the oral side tumor cells. SB222200, a selective antagonist of NK-3R, significantly suppressed the radiographic osteolytic lesion and tumorigenesis. CONCLUSION: NK-3R signaling is a potential target for the treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma in cases of bone destruction.

Semaphorin 4D promotes bone invasion in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) frequently invade the bones of the facial skeleton. Semaphorin 4D (Sema4D) is an axon guidance molecule produced by oligodendrocytes. Sema4D was also identified in the bone microenvironment and many cancer tissues including HNSCC. To date, however, the role of Sema4D in cancer-associated bone disease is still unknown. This is the first study to demonstrate the role of Sema4D in bone invasion of cancer. In the clinical tissue samples of bone lesion of HNSCC, Sema4D was detected at high levels, and its expression was correlated with insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) expression. In vitro experiments showed that IGF-I regulates Sema4D expression and Sema4D increased proliferation, migration and invasion in HNSCC cells. Sema4D also regulated the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor κß ligand (RANKL) in osteoblasts, and this stimulated osteoclastgenesis. Furthermore, knockdown of Sema4D in HNSCC cells inhibited tumor growth and decreased the number of osteoclasts in a mouse xenograft model. Taken together, IGF-I-driven production of Sema4D in HNSCCs promotes osteoclastogenesis and bone invasion.

Tachykinin Receptor 3 Distribution in Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Tachykinin 3 (TAC3) and its preferred tachykinin receptor 3 (TACR3) that are prominently detected in the central nervous system, play significant roles in physiological development and specifically in the human reproductive system. The roles of TAC3/TACR3 in oral squamous cell carcinoma are unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We examined the expression pattern of TAC3/TACR3 in clinically-resected oral squamous cell carcinoma samples using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence analysis. RESULTS: We found that even though the expression level of TACR3 was negative in the normal epithelium, it was highly elevated in tumor cells. A more intense signal was observed in the invasive front of tumor cells that had migrated into the mandible bone matrix. TAC3 was not detected in tumor cells, but was expressed in PGP-9.5-positive sensory nerves in the mandible. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that peripheral sensory nerve-derived TAC3 may affect gingival oral squamous cell carcinoma cells through TACR3 in the bone matrix.

The Role of Sonic Hedgehog Signaling in Osteoclastogenesis and Jaw Bone Destruction.

Sonic hedgehog (SHH) and its signaling have been identified in several human cancers, and increased levels of its expression appear to correlate with disease progression and metastasis. However, the role of SHH in bone destruction associated with oral squamous cell carcinomas is still unclear. In this study we analyzed SHH expression and the role played by SHH signaling in gingival carcinoma-induced jawbone destruction. From an analysis of surgically resected lower gingival squamous cell carcinoma mandible samples, we found that SHH was highly expressed in tumor cells that had invaded the bone matrix. On the other hand, the hedgehog receptor Patched and the signaling molecule Gli-2 were highly expressed in the osteoclasts and the progenitor cells. SHH stimulated osteoclast formation and pit formation in the presence of the receptor activator for nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) in CD11b+ mouse bone marrow cells. SHH upregulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK, NFATc1, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), and Cathepsin K expression in RAW264.7 cells. Our results suggest that tumor-derived SHH stimulated the osteoclast formation and bone resorption in the tumor jawbone microenvironment.

Epilepsies after Pocket Monster seizures.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a 5-year follow-up study in patients with a seizure induced by animated cartoon "Pocket Monster." METHODS: A recurrence of seizures was observed in 25 of 91 patients with a Pocket Monster seizure. The patients were divided into two groups: Epilepsy group of 12 patients with a history of epilepsy and Nonepilepsy group of 13 patients without a history of epilepsy. RESULTS: Age below 12 years and generalized seizures were more often in Nonepilepsy group than in Epilepsy group. Seizure recurrence was earlier in Epilepsy group than in Nonepilepsy group. Photoparoxysmal response was relatively infrequent in Epilepsy group. The majority of patients were classified into idiopathic generalized epilepsies in Nonepilepsy group, whereas most patients were categorized into localization-related epilepsies in Epilepsy group. CONCLUSIONS: Epilepsies after Pocket Monster seizures were different according to the presence or absence of a history of epilepsy. These results will be useful in order to determine the treatment of a patient with a visually induced seizure.

A follow-up survey on seizures induced by animated cartoon TV program "Pocket Monster".

PURPOSE: To identify the short-term outcome of patients who had seizures while watching an animated cartoon TV program, "Pocket Monster," on December 16, 1997. METHODS: One and three years after the incident, questionnaires were sent to physicians of each patient about seizure recurrence, EEGs, and medication. RESULTS: Among 103 patients in whom epileptic seizures occurred during the TV program and information on the outcomes was available, 25 (24%) patients had a history of unprovoked seizures before the incident (Epilepsy Group), and 78 (76%) did not (Non-Epilepsy Group). Twenty-three (22%) patients were reported to have seizures after the incident, and 15 of them had visually induced seizures. Patients of the Epilepsy Group had more seizure recurrence than did those of the Non-Epilepsy Group (56% vs. 9%; p < 0.0001), either for unprovoked (44% vs. 4%; p < 0.0001) or visually induced seizures (28% vs. 9%; p < 0.05). Of nine patients of the Non-Epilepsy Group who had seizures after the incident, only three developed recurrent unprovoked seizures. In the Non-Epilepsy Group, no difference was found in seizure recurrence between patients in whom valproate (VPA) was prescribed immediately after the incident and in those without medication (one of five (20%) vs. seven of 73 (10%); p > 0.05). EEG was performed at least once in 98 patients after the incident. Photoparoxysmal response (PPR) was present in 45 (46%) patients, and spontaneous epileptiform discharges, in 49 (50%). PPR did not have any correlation with recurrence of seizures, neither spontaneous nor visually induced seizures, whereas spontaneous epileptiform discharges showed a good correlation with seizure recurrence (34% vs. 8%; p < 0.01), including visually induced seizures (24% vs. 2%; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Short-term outcomes showed that 70 (68%) of 103 patients who had a seizure during the incident had no seizures before and during < or = 3 years of follow-up.

Prognostic value of positron emission tomography in cryptogenic West syndrome.

The relationship between positron emission tomography (PET) findings and developmental or seizure outcome was examined in 17 infants (11 males, six females; mean age at onset of spasms 7 months, range 3 to 26 months) with newly diagnosed cryptogenic West syndrome. The predictive value of PET in these infants was assessed. PET was performed in the infants at the onset of spasms and 3 months after initial therapy using 18F-labelled 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose. A third PET was performed at 18 months of age if the second scan was abnormal. All infants were followed up until at least 3 years of age. Cortical hypometabolism was detected in 11 infants on the first PET and in five infants on the second. Rate of developmental delay at the last follow-up was significantly higher in infants with hypometabolism on the second PET than in those without PET abnormalities (p<0.05). Rate of seizure occurrence after initial treatment was higher in infants with cortical hypometabolism on the second PET, but the difference was not statistically significant. Results suggest that when PET after the initial treatment shows no abnormalities, even though the first PET shows hypometabolism, infants with cryptogenic West syndrome may have a favourable developmental or seizure outcome. PET may be a useful tool in evaluating the prognosis in infants with cryptogenic West syndrome.