Mutations in Kruppel-like factor 1 cause transfusion-dependent hemolytic anemia and persistence of embryonic globin gene expression.

In this study, we report on 8 compound heterozygotes for mutations in the key erythroid transcription factor Krüppel-like factor 1 in patients who presented with severe, transfusion-dependent hemolytic anemia. In most cases, the red cells were hypochromic and microcytic, consistent with abnormalities in hemoglobin synthesis. In addition, in many cases, the red cells resembled those seen in patients with membrane defects or enzymopathies, known as chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia (CNSHA). Analysis of RNA and protein in primary erythroid cells from these individuals provided evidence of abnormal globin synthesis, with persistent expression of fetal hemoglobin and, most remarkably, expression of large quantities of embryonic globins in postnatal life. The red cell membranes were abnormal, most notably expressing reduced amounts of CD44 and, consequently, manifesting the rare In(Lu) blood group. Finally, all tested patients showed abnormally low levels of the red cell enzyme pyruvate kinase, a known cause of CNSHA. These patients define a new type of severe, transfusion-dependent CNSHA caused by mutations in a trans-acting factor (Krüppel-like factor 1) and reveal an important pathway regulating embryonic globin gene expression in adult humans.

Incidence of ototoxicity in pediatric patients with transfusion-dependent thalassemia who are less well-chelated by mono- and combined therapy of iron chelating agents.

Ototoxicity due to iron chelation therapy, especially deferoxamine (DFO), is frequently observed in patients who have a higher chelation index (>0.025). However, there is limited data on patients who are less well-chelated and on other chelating regimens, including deferiprone (L1), deferasirox (DFX), and a combination of DFO and L1. To determine the incidence of ototoxicity from iron chelators, we retrospectively analyzed our clinical records from January 1997 to December 2010. All transfusion-dependent thalassemia (TDT) patients received iron chelation therapy with mono DFX, DFO, L1, or a combination. All patients underwent routine otolaryngologic examination and pure-tone audiometry before starting each chelation regimen and were regularly followed every 6 months. One hundred thalassemic patients were enrolled and analyzed (48 males and 52 females), with a mean age of 12.11 ± 4.48 years (range 2.5-22.5 years). Total summative duration of iron chelation therapy in all patients was 596.50 years. Nine patients were found to have conductive hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) was identified in seven patients but only four were determined to be associated with iron chelators; three patients were detected while undergoing DFO therapy and one patient with L1 therapy. None of patients undergoing DFO therapy had reached over the levels of chelation index. In our resource-limited setting with poor treatment compliance, there was a rather low incidence of ototoxicity after exposure to iron chelators. However, a routine audiometry remains recommended for early detection and intervention since SNHL still develops and results in a long-term morbidity.

Deferiprone (GPO-L-ONE(®) ) monotherapy reduces iron overload in transfusion-dependent thalassemias: 1-year results from a multicenter prospective, single arm, open label, dose escalating phase III pediatric study (GPO-L-ONE; A001) from Thailand.

Accessibility to iron chelators including deferoxamine and deferasirox remains obscured in many developing countries. To provide an alternative, the government pharmaceutical organization of Thailand (GPO) manufactured deferiprone which has similar bioequivalent to the standard product. Seventy-three pediatric patients with severe ß thalassemias, age range 3.2-19 years, were recruited to a 1-year multicenter prospective, single arm, open label, dose escalating Phase III study of deferiprone to determine its clinical efficacy and safety. Sixty-four patients (87.6%) completed the study with good compliance (>94%). Average deferiprone dose was 79.1±4.3 mg/kg/day. Overall, mean serum ferritin (SF) levels at 1 year were not significantly changed from baseline. However, 45% of patients (response group) had SF reduced >15% from baseline at 1 year with a median reduction of 1,065 ng ml(-1) . Baseline SF was the major factor that predicts clinical efficacy; patients with baseline SF>3,500 ng ml(-1) had the most significant fall of SF at 1 year. A subgroup analysis by MRI-T2* confirmed that the response group had higher baseline liver iron and deferiprone could significantly reduce liver iron overload and normalize levels of ALT at 1 year. Although, gastrointestinal irritation (20.5%) was the most common drug-related adverse events (AEs) followed by transaminitis (16.4%) and neutropenia (6.8%), all patients were well tolerated. There was no mortality and agranulocytosis found in this trial. Monotherapy of deferiprone with appropriate dose adjustment and monitoring for adverse events appeared to be an effective chelation therapy in some patients with good compliance and acceptable safety profiles.

Problems in determining thalassemia carrier status in a program for prevention and control of severe thalassemia syndromes: a lesson from Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Prevention and control of severe ß thalassemia by carrier detection and identification of couples at risk in developed countries is one of the most successful stories in modern medicine. Similar programs in developing countries especially Southeast Asia, are more problematic because both α and ß thalassemias are highly prevalent. In Thailand, there are limited data on whether we could determine, based on hematological phenotypes, the mutation severity and/or coinheritance of α thalassemia in ß thalassemia traits. METHODS: Comprehensive molecular, hematology and hemoglobin analyses of the α and ß globin genes were performed in 141 healthy individuals identified as ß thalassemia carriers. RESULTS: Seventeen different ß globin mutations were successfully identified out of all cases analyzed. Although the majority of the mutations identified were the ß° or severe ß⁺ thalassemia alleles, a high proportion of mild mutations (25%) was observed. Of these ß thalassemia traits, 22.3% were found to co-inherit the α thalassemias. Milder hematological phenotypes were noted in ß⁺ compared with ß° thalassemia traits when the α globin genes were intact. Although co-inheritance of α° thalassemia might be suspected in cases with skewed profiles, due to the overlapping values, it remains difficult to apply these parameters for reliable carrier determination. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of hemoglobin analysis and DNA testing seems to be the best way to confirm carrier status in a region with high frequency for both α and ß thalassemias. Underdiagnoses of carrier status could hamper the effectiveness of a thalassemia prevention and control program.

Chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia due to glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: report of two families with novel mutations causing G6PD Bangkok and G6PD Bangkok Noi.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is one of the most common hereditary enzymopathies worldwide. Mostly G6PD deficient cases are asymptomatic though they may have the risk of neonatal jaundice (NNJ) and acute intravascular hemolysis during oxidative stress. Chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia (CNSHA) due to G6PD deficiency is rare. In Thailand, one case was reported 40 years ago and by biochemical study this G6PD was reported to be a new variant G6PD Bangkok. We, herein, report two families with CNSHA due to G6PD deficiency. In the first family, we have been following up the clinical course of the patient with G6PD Bangkok. In addition to chronic hemolysis, he had three acute hemolytic episodes requiring blood transfusions during childhood period. Multiple gallstones were detected at the age of 27. His two daughters who inherited G6PD Bangkok from him and G6PD Vanua Lava from his wife are asymptomatic. Both of them had NNJ and persistent evidences of compensated hemolysis. Molecular analysis revealed a novel missense mutation 825 G→C predicting 275 Lys→Asn causing G6PD Bangkok. In the second family, two male siblings are affected. They had NNJ and several hemolytic episodes which required blood transfusions. On follow-up they have been diagnosed with chronic hemolysis as evidenced by reticulocytosis and indirect hyperbilirubinemia. Molecular analysis revealed combined missense mutations in exons 12 and 13. The first mutation was 1376 G→T predicting 459 Arg→Leu (known as G6PD Canton) and the second one was 1502 T→G predicting 501 Phe→Cys. We designated the resulting novel G6PD variant, G6PD Bangkok Noi.

Rapid flow cytometric test using eosin-5-maleimide for diagnosis of red blood cell membrane disorders.

Conventional diagnosis of hereditary red blood cell (RBC) membrane disorders, in particular hereditary spherocytosis (HS), is labor intensive, time consuming and requires at least 2 ml of blood, which might be impractical in neonatal period. We evaluated the use of eosin-5-maleimide (EMA), a dye that reacts covalently with lysine-430 on the first extracellular loop of band 3 protein, for rapid screening test of patients with HS and Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis (SAO). Fresh RBCs from 142 healthy controls, 50 HS, 17 SAO, 29 hereditary elliptocytosis, 5 autoimmune hemolytic anemia, 66 patients with beta-thalassemia/HbE, 31 cases with alpha-thalassemia (HbH disease) and 4 cases with pyruvate kinase deficiency were stained with EMA, and analyzed for their mean channel fluorescence (MCF) using a flow cytometer. RBCs from patients with HS and SAO expressed a greater degree of reduction in MCF compared to those from normal controls and other hemolytic diseases. These findings showed that the fluorescence flow cytometric-based method is a simple, sensitive and reliable diagnostic test for RBC membrane disorders using a small volume of blood, and results could be obtained within 2 hours. Such method could serve as a first line screening for the diagnosis of HS and SAO in routine hematology before further specific membrane protein electrophoresis and molecular diagnosis are employed.

Clinical and hematological phenotype of homozygous hemoglobin E: revisit of a benign condition with hidden reproductive risk.

Hemoglobin E (HbE) is one of the most prevalent beta-globin variant, which is widely distributed in Southeast Asia especially in Thailand. Homozygosity for this variant is common and may occur with iron deficiency. In order to study clinical and hematological phenotypes without the confounding effect of iron deficiency, investigations were carried out before and after iron supplementation for 2 months. The effect of G6PD deficiency and coinheritance of alpha-thalassemia in homozygous HbE were also studied. HbE homozygotes were clinically benign, never had been transfused and had no hepatosplenomegaly. Out of 76 HbE homozygotes, hematological parameters of 7 individuals with iron deficiency improved after iron supplementation. Hemoglobin analysis revealed that HbE was the main hemoglobin detected, but 12 subjects were found to have a substantial percentage of HbF, which might lead to misdiagnosis as HbE/beta-thalassemia. Both clinical and hematological phenotypes of simple homozygous HbE did not differ from those who also inherited alpha-thalassemia and/or G6PD deficiency. It is necessary to perform a comprehensive DNA analysis for alpha-thalassemia in cases of homozygous HbE when their partner is suspected of having alpha-thalassemia 1 gene.

Development of a comprehensive red blood cell enzymopathy laboratory in Thailand: the study of normal activity in eight erythroenzymes in Thais.

In order to provide a reference range for normal red blood cell enzyme activities in Thai, we analyzed data from 113 healthy non-anemic Thai people (55 males and 58 females) age 1-42 years, who all had a normal pattern of hemoglobin typing (HbA and HbA2 less than 3.5%). Hematological analysis was performed using an automated cell counter and the hemoglobin studies were carried out by low pressure liquid chromatography. Owing to a high frequency of alpha-thalassemia in Thailand, cases with an MCV < 75 fl were excluded from the study since these cases were likely to be heterozygotes for alpha0-thalassemia. Cases with reticulocytes > 2.5% were excluded from the study since reticulocytes have a higher enzyme activity than mature erythrocytes. Cases with abnormal red blood cell morphology, such as spherocytes and ovalocytes, were also excluded. These criteria were applied to select "normal" controls for our analysis. We assayed eight red blood cell enzyme activities in normal subjects: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), pyruvate kinase (PK), hexokinase (HK), glucose phosphate isomerase (GPI), phosphofructokinase (PFK), aldolase (ALD) and phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK). The mean normal ranges (+/- SD) for G6PD, 6PGD, PK, HK, GPI, PFK, ALD and PGK were 12.7 (+/-2.2), 10.7 (+/-1.3), 18.5 (+/-4.0), 1.5 (+/-0.4), 80.5 (+/-11.8), 11.8 (+/-2.1), 4.5 (+/-1.6) and 370 (+/-43) IU/gHb, respectively. Age-dependent differences for the reference values for these enzyme activities were summarized. All red blood cell enzyme activities were highest during the early childhood period and slightly lower in the adult period. These values will be of clinically useful for future reference.

Molecular analysis of unknown beta-globin gene mutations using polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) technique and its application in Thai families with beta-thalassemias and beta-globin variants.

OBJECTIVES: Approximately 40 beta-globin gene mutations have been identified in Thailand. The detection of these mutations is currently performed by the reverse dot blot (RDB) hybridization technique, which could detect only known mutations. We describe here the polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) assay for detecting unknown mutations of the beta-globin genes. DESIGN AND METHODS: Six PCR fragments covering the promoter, entire coding region, and intervening sequences were amplified before separation by the SSCP technique. Fifteen known mutations and two polymorphisms were analyzed by this technique in various gel mixtures and temperatures to compare their mobility shift patterns. RESULTS: The clear patterns of mobility shift were demonstrated when a 10% polyacrylamide gel with 5% glycerol was used. The sensitivity was found to be 100% when electrophoreses were performed at both room temperature and 6 degrees C. This technique was then applied to screen beta-globin gene mutations in Thai families with similar profiles of abnormal hemoglobins. The distinct patterns of mobility shifts were observed in which further sequencing analysis revealed an AC insertion at codon 146, causing hemoglobin Tak. CONCLUSION: The PCR-SSCP technique might be a useful molecular technique to minimize the requirement of direct genomic sequencing to identify beta-globin gene mutations and could be applied in several developing countries where resources are limited but genetic hemoglobin disorders are highly prevalent.

Validation of osmotic fragility test and dichlorophenol indophenol precipitation test for screening of thalassemia and Hb E.

The strategy for screening of thalassemia and Hb E by a combination of osmotic fragility (OF) test and dichlorophenol indophenol precipitation (DCIP) test was validated with 436 unrelated Thai subjects. Hemoglobin (Hb) typing, Hb A2 quantitation, PCR and DNA sequence analysis were used as confirmatory methods for diagnosis of thalassemia and hemoglobinopathy. The sensitivity and specificity of this strategy was 100% and 79.7%, respectively. The results assessed by two medical scientists were exactly the same with 93.3% accuracy in comparison with the confirmatory methods. A combination of OF and DCIP has been shown to be a reliable, rapid, simple and sensitive strategy for screening thalassemia and Hb E in the Thai population.

The validation of an automated liquid chromatography system for the diagnosis of thalassemias and hemoglobinopathies.

Accurate and precise hemoglobin separation and the quantitation of Hb A2 and Hb F are essential for the diagnosis of the thalassemias and hemoglobinopathies. Presented in this study is the validation of the the Hb A2 assay of the HbGold analyzer, a fully automated liquid chromatography system for hemoglobin separation and quantitation. Variability of Hb A2 quantitation was quite low; the CV's of within-run, between-run and interlaboratory studies were 1.8-3.1%, 3.4-6.0% and 6.8-8.8% respectively. The results of the %Hb A2 quantitated by HbGold analyzer correlated well with those given by the Bio-Rad Variant Hb testing system (r=0.98). The application of the HbGold analyzer for the diagnosis of the thalassemia phenotypes frequently observed in Thailand is considered. In conclusion, the Hb A2 assay of the HbGold analyzer could be used for the quantitation of Hb A2 and Hb F and the presumptive identification of abnormal hemoglobins.

Secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in children: an analysis of etiology and outcome.

UNLABELLED: Fifty-two pediatric patients were diagnosed with secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) at the Department of Pediatrics, Siriraj Hospital between 1989 and 1998. Of these, 15 were infection-associated (IAHS), 25 were malignancy-associated (MAHS) and 12 were idiopathic HLH. Causative organisms for IAHS were Salmonella (3), Staphylococcus (2), enterobactor (2), dengue virus (3), malaria (2) and one each of Ebstein Barr virus (EBV), Serratia marcesens and Penicillium maneffei. Unlike those reported in adults and in the Western literature, 47 of 52 children in the present series were immunocompetent hosts. In addition, the proportion of MAHS was higher than expected (48.1%). Twenty-two of 25 MAHS presented with hemophagocytic syndrome and were subsequently found to have malignant diseases. Sixty per cent of MAHS (15 cases) were associated with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), mainly T-cell. Other malignancies included acute leukemias (7) MDS (1), Langerhans cell histiocytosis (1) and histiocytic sarcoma (1). Treatment approaches were specific therapy for individuals with known causes. Supportive treatment with blood components transfusions, steroid, intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG), and chemotherapeutic agents, mainly vinblastine and etoposides, were used in indicated cases. Of the 52 cases, 15 (28.8%) had a fatal outcome during the acute phase, and other 4 died of their subsequent malignant diseases. There was a statistically significant association between poorer prognosis and patients' age < 3 years (p= 0.004) or MAHS (p=0.005). CONCLUSION: Secondary HLH is not uncommon in Thai children who are immunocompetent. Malignancies, particulary NHL, are highly suspicious especially for cases not responsive to conventional therapy. Poor prognostic factors are age less than 3 years and MAHS.

Early detection of cardiac involvement in beta-thalassemia children.

BACKGROUND: Beta-thalassemia major and beta-thalassemia/HbE are the important causes of chronic hemolytic anemia in Thailand. The objectives of the study were to determine variables associated with cardiac involvement in asymptomatic beta-thalassemia patients. PATIENTS AND METHOD: The authors studied beta-thalassemia major and beta-thalassemia/HbE patients who came to the clinic between July 1st 1999 and July 31st 2000. There were 211 asymptomatic patients included in study. Their ages ranged from 2.6 to 18.2 years. Previous clinical history including blood transfusion and iron chelation were recorded. All patients received a thorough physical examination, chest X-ray, electrocardiogram and echocardiogram. Patients who had abnormal systolic or diastolic function detected by echocardiogram were identified as having cardiac involvement. RESULTS: Cardiac involvement was found in 26 patients (12.3%). There was no difference in physical examination between patients who had and did not have cardiac involvement. Abnormal chest X-Ray defined as cardiothoracic (CT) ratio>0.55 and electrocardiogram (ECG) findings of left or right ventricular hypertrophy were associated with cardiac involvement. Other associated findings were older age and lower average pretransfusion hematocrit (23 +/- 6.6%). CONCLUSIONS: In asymptomatic beta-thalassemia children, chest X-ray and ECG should be used for screening patients for the detection of cardiac involvement.

Effect of red blood cell glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency on patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever.

Eighty nine males aged 1-13 years diagnosed with dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and admitted to the Department of Pediatrics Siriraj Hospital from March 1998 to April 2000 were included in this study. 17 cases (19.1%) had red blood cell glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) deficiency and 72 cases (80.9%) had normal G-6-PD enzyme activities. Most of the patients were classified as DHF grade II in severity. 3 of 17 G-6-PD deficient cases had serious complications and all of them had acute intravascular hemolysis requiring blood transfusions. One of these also had hematemesis, one had azothemia and the other one had renal failure and severe liver failure with hepatic encephalopathy. In the cases without obvious hemolytic or hepatic complications, G-6-PD deficient cases had mildly but significantly higher total birirubin and indirect bilirubin, as well as a lower hematocrit than those who had normal G-6-PD. Reticulocyte count was low during the acute phase, however, during recovery, the levels were significantly increased in both groups. In the non G-6-PD deficient group, G-6-PD enzyme levels were significantly decreased during the acute phase compared to the normal controls but rose significantly to normal levels during the recovery phase. There were no statistically significant differences in other laboratory data. All patients recovered fully from DHF. The prevalence of G-6-PD deficiency in male patients who had DHF in this study was 19.1 per cent which was higher than the prevalence in a previous study of 12 per cent in Bangkok. This may imply that G-6-PD deficient males suffer more from DHF compared to normal G-6-PD subjects.

Malignancies in HIV-infected children at Siriraj Hospital.

BACKGROUND: Some malignancies such as Kaposi's sarcoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) are one of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-defining illnesses. With the improving survival of patients with AIDS due to better prevention and treatment of infectious complications, there may well be an increase in AIDS-related malignancies. OBJECTIVE: To study malignancies in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children in view of demographic data, HIV disease status, characters of malignancies, and treatment outcome. METHOD: Retrospective study was performed in HIV-infected children with malignancies at Siriraj Hospital from January 1995 to October 2001. RESULTS: During the 6 year and 10 month period, there were 7 HIV-infected children (2 boys, 5 girls) with malignancies. Mean age at diagnosis of malignancies was 3 years 7 months (2 years 6 months-5 years). Hepatomegaly and lymphadenopathy were the most common presenting symptoms. All patients had NHL stage III or IV. Burkitt's lymphoma was the predominant type. Six patients were treated with appropriate chemotherapy and one patient also received antiretroviral therapy. Only one patient with large cell lymphoma stage IV who received both antiretroviral and chemotherapy has survived to date. Five patients died during chemotherapy treatment and one patient died before receiving chemotherapy. Causes of death of these patients were infections. One of them with Burkitt's lymphoma stage III also had central nervous system (CNS) relapse at the time of death. Mean survival time after diagnosis with malignancies was 11 months (15 days-3 years 1 month). CONCLUSION: NHL is the most common malignancy in HIV-infected children at Siriraj Hospital. Age at presentation of NHL in these children is younger than their non-HIV counterpart. Outcome of treatment is poor. Adjustment protocol for treatment of malignancy in HIV-infected children combined with antiretroviral therapy for controlling HIV infection should be studied further.

Thrombotic complications during induction chemotherapy of acute childhood lymphoblastic leukemia.

The incidence of thrombosis during induction chemotherapy of acute childhood lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients was 6 found to be in 105 (5.7%). There were 4 cerebral infarctions, 1 superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction and 1 deep vein thrombosis. Among these, 2 of them died. A prospective study was further conducted of the change in coagulation and anticoagulation factors during 6 weeks of induction chemotherapy. It was found that the activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) was within normal range in all cases throughout 6 weeks, while prothrombin time (PT) and thrombin time (TT) were slightly prolonged, especially during the first 3 weeks of this phase. The natural anticoagulant panels which included protein C (PC), protein S (PS) and antithrombin III (AT III) and also fibrinogen level, were lower during the first 3 weeks and reached its nadir during the second and third week. The lower level of natural anticoagulants might be an important predisposing factor for the occurrence of thrombosis in these patients.

Allele related mutation specific-polymerase chain reaction for rapid diagnosis of Hb New York (beta 113 (G15) Val-->Glu, beta(CD113 GTG-->GAG)).

Hemoglobin New York (beta 113 (G15) Val-->Glu), a beta-globin variant, was first reported in a Chinese family living in New York. Subsequently, this abnormal hemoglobin was reported in many Chinese descendants from several groups and it was also known as Hb Kaohsiung. The subtle change in alpha1beta1 contact region apart from the heme group connecting area by Val-->Glu substitution has minor changes in both the electrophoretic mobility and stability making this hemoglobin variant difficult to distinguish from Hb A using routine hemoglobin analysis. The authors described a case of heterozygosity of Hb New York diagnosed by a molecular technique and revealed a mutation in beta(CD113 GTG-->GAG). A novel Allele Related Mutation Specific-Polymerase Chain Reaction (ARMS-PCR) for rapid diagnosis of this mutation has been proposed.

A rare association of alphaO-thalassemia (--SEA) and an initiation codon mutation (ATG-->A-G) of the alpha2 gene causes Hb H disease in Thailand.

Several rare and hitherto unidentified non deletional alpha-thalassemias (alphaTalpha or alphaalphaT) have been reported from Thailand within the past few years. Interactions of these determinants with alphaO-thalassemia (thal) (--/), which is highly prevalent in this region, give rise to various genotypes (--/ alphaTalpha or --/alphaalphaT) underlying Hb H disease. We report herein the interaction of a rare initiation codon mutation of the alpha2 gene and alphaO-thal in a Thai boy with Hb H disease. This finding highlights a wide variety of molecular pathology of the alpha-globin genes underlying alpha-thal syndrome in Southeast Asia.

Compound heterozygosity for alpha0-thalassemia (- -THAI) and Hb constant spring causes severe Hb H disease.

We report two unrelated cases of Hb H-Constant Spring (Hb H-CS) disease caused by a compound heterozygosity for alpha0-thalassemia (--THAI deletion) and Hb CS (alpha142, TAA-->CAA) in Thai patients. Hematological and clinical observations in the probands are more severe than those of deletional type of Hb H disease (- -/-alpha), owing to an early onset of anemia and recurrent episode of anemic crises. These cases also address the importance of the - - THAI deletion which causes a severe clinical phenotype, and that could be missed by routine screening. We suggest that testing for this mutation should be included in the screening program for the prevention and control of thalassemia in Thailand, and possibly in other countries in Southeast Asia, where alpha0-thalassemias are highly prevalent.

Unusual phenotype of hemoglobin EE with hemoglobin H disease: a pitfall in clinical diagnosis and genetic counseling.

Two unrelated individuals previously diagnosed as hemoglobin (Hb) EE were found to be, in fact, Hb EE with Hb H disease. This globin genotype normally results as Hb EF Bart disease. This unusual genotype-phenotype interaction highlights the need for molecular analysis in affected individuals with Hb E disorders before appropriate genetic counseling and genetic risk estimation in offspring can be given.