Longitudinal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review.

Previous reviews have often shown a link between digital media ADHD symptom levels. However, longitudinal studies are needed to find stronger evidence of a causal effect as well as to determine the direction of effects. The aim of the present review (PROSPERO CRD42021262695) was therefore to provide a systematic review of studies meeting the following inclusion criteria: (1) include longitudinal data investigating associations between digital media (i.e., gaming and social media) and later ADHD symptoms or vice versa, (2) be published within the past 10 years (i.e., 2011 until June 2021), (3) be published in a peer-reviewed journal in English, and (4) include children or adolescents (age 0-17 years). After a systematic search in the Web of Science and PsycInfo databases, we included 28 studies, all with adequate or high quality. Results showed support for reciprocal associations between digital media and ADHD symptoms, with associations being more consistent for problematic use of digital media than for screen time. Thus, children with ADHD symptoms appear more vulnerable to developing high or problematic use of digital media (i.e., selection effects), and digital media also have effects on later ADHD symptom levels, either because of specific characteristics of digital media or because of indirect effects on, for example, sleep and social relations (i.e., media effects). However, it should be emphasized that further studies investigating potential moderators and mediators are needed if we are to better understand the complex associations between digital media and ADHD symptom levels.

Parental experiences of homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic: differences between seven European countries and between children with and without mental health conditions.

The aim of the present study was to examine parental experiences of homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic in families with or without a child with a mental health condition across Europe. The study included 6720 parents recruited through schools, patient organizations and social media platforms (2002 parents with a child with a mental health condition and 4718 without) from seven European countries: the UK (n = 508), Sweden (n = 1436), Spain (n = 1491), Belgium (n = 508), the Netherlands (n = 324), Germany (n = 1662) and Italy (n = 794). Many parents reported negative effects of homeschooling for themselves and their child, and many found homeschooling to be of poor quality, with insufficient support from schools. In most countries, contact with teachers was limited, leaving parents with primary responsibility for managing homeschooling. Parents also reported increased levels of stress, worry, social isolation, and domestic conflict. A small number of parents reported increased parental alcohol/drug use. Some differences were found between countries and some negative experiences were more common in families with a child with a mental health condition. However, differences between countries and between families with and without a mental health condition were generally small, indicating that many parents across countries reported negative experiences. Some parents also reported positive experiences of homeschooling. The adverse effects of homeschooling will likely have a long-term impact and contribute to increased inequalities. Given that school closures may be less effective than other interventions, policymakers need to carefully consider the negative consequences of homeschooling during additional waves of the COVID-19 pandemic and future pandemics.

Partner responsiveness moderates the relation between COVID-19-related stressors and changes in mood during the pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created an unusually stressful situation for many people around the world. Due to the restrictions, many have been isolated in their homes, and having a responsive partner may have become even more important. The present study aimed to investigate (1) whether there were any differences in social and work-related stressors and changes in negative mood during the COVID-19 pandemic as a function of marital status, and (2) whether perceived partner responsiveness can attenuate the associations between COVID-19-related stressors and changes in negative mood. The participants were 2,400 Brazilian adults recruited via the Internet, using a virtual sampling strategy. They were assigned to three distinct groups based on their relationship status. The results showed that a relatively large proportion of the sample reported increased levels of negative mood, and that married/cohabitating couples reported low levels of negative change in mood compared to single participants. We also found that partner responsiveness attenuated the association between stress and mental health, but only for people who were dating. Our study contributes new insights by showing that effects on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic are dependent on relationship type and perceived partner responsiveness.

Objective assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in older adults compared with controls using the QbTest.

OBJECTIVES: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) persists into old age, with prevalence rates of 2.8% to 3.3% in adults over 60 years of age. Most diagnostic assessment tools are not validated for older adults. The Quantified behavioral Test (QbTest) is an objective assessment for the core symptoms of ADHD and is validated for children and younger adults. We investigated whether the QbTest can be used to differentiate between older adults with ADHD and healthy controls. METHODS: Older adults aged 55 to 79 years with (n = 97) or without (n = 112) ADHD were assessed with the QbTest. They also rated their ADHD symptom severity. QbTest raw scores were compared between groups. Factor scores were computed using factor loadings from a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Multilevel regressions were used to determine effects of background characteristics and comorbidity. Logistic regressions were performed to determine whether the QbTest differentiated between patients with ADHD and healthy controls. RESULTS: The factor structure of the CFA was comparable with that of younger age groups. Older age was associated with higher Inattention score. Parameters comprising the factors Hyperactivity and Inattention, but not Impulsivity, were shown to contribute significantly in differentiating between the groups. The QbTest had a correct classification rate of 70%, which was increased to 91% when combining QbTest scores and self-reports of ADHD symptom severity. CONCLUSIONS: The QbTest is feasible for older adults, and the factors Hyperactivity and Inattention are valid parameters for the diagnostic assessment of ADHD in older adults, when used in addition to self-reports.

Quality of life in older adults with ADHD: links to ADHD symptom levels and executive functioning deficits.

Purpose and aim: The overall aim of the present study was to examine quality of life in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) patients age ≥60 years. First, we compared older adults with ADHD to both healthy controls of the same age and younger adults with ADHD. Second, we examined executive functioning as a possible underlying factor for quality of life among older adults with ADHD. Methods: The study included 158 participants in three groups: (1) older adults (60-75 years of age) with ADHD (n = 42), (2) healthy controls of the same age (n = 58), and (3) younger adults (age 18-45 years of age) with ADHD (n = 56). The patients with ADHD were clinically-referred. Quality of life was examined through self-ratings and executive functioning was examined using both self-ratings and tests. Results: Older adults with ADHD differed significantly from controls the same age on all aspects of quality of life, with large effect sizes. However, they showed similar levels of quality of life compared to younger adults with ADHD. The exception was psychological health, for which older adults displayed better quality of life compared to younger adults with ADHD. Executive deficits measured through self-ratings, especially working memory, were related to quality of life, sometimes also beyond the influence of ADHD symptom levels. Conclusions: Older adults with ADHD show serious impairments in quality of life, that are comparable to the levels found for younger adults. Impairments may increase further as these individuals grow older and clinics need to meet the needs of this increasingly larger group of patients.

Standardization and cross-cultural comparisons of the Swedish Conners 3® rating scales.

PURPOSE: The Conners Rating Scales are widely used in research and clinical practice for measuring attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and associated problem behaviors, but country-specific norms are seldom collected. The current study presents the standardization of the Swedish Conners 3® Rating Scales. In addition, we compared the Swedish norms to those collected in the U.S. and Germany. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included altogether 3496 ratings of children and adolescents aged 6-18 years from population-based samples. RESULTS: The scores obtained for the Swedish Conners 3® showed satisfactory to excellent internal consistency for most subscales and excellent test-retest reliability. Across-informant correlations were modest. Cross-country comparisons revealed that aggression symptoms rated by teachers and ADHD symptoms rated by parents differed between Sweden, Germany and the U.S. Executive functioning deficits also varied as a function of rater and country, with German and Swedish teachers reporting increasing behavior problems with age, whereas a decrease was observed in the U.S. For some subscales, the observed cross-cultural differences were large enough for a child to be classified as being within the normal range (t-score <60) in one country and within the clinical range (t-score > 70) in another country. CONCLUSION: The present study shows that the Swedish adaptation of the Conners 3® provides consistent and reproducible scores. However, across-informant ratings were only modest and significant cross-cultural differences in scoring were observed. This emphasizes the need for multi-informant assessment as well as for national norms for rating instruments commonly used within child and adolescent psychiatry research and clinical settings.

Neuropsychological Functioning and Attachment Representations in Early School Age as Predictors of ADHD Symptoms in Late Adolescence.

This study aimed to examine relations between parent and child attachment representations and neuropsychological functions at age 8, as well as relations between these constructs and ADHD symptoms over a 10-year period. A community-based sample of 105 children (52 boys) participated. Measures of attachment representations and a range of neuropsychological functions were collected at age 8. Parents rated emotion dysregulation and ADHD symptoms at age 8 and ADHD symptoms again at age 18. Significant, although modest, relations were found between disorganized attachment and some aspects of neuropsychological functioning in childhood. When studying outcomes in late adolescence and controlling for early ADHD symptom levels, spatial working memory and disorganized attachment remained significant in relation to both ADHD symptom domains, and one measure of inhibition remained significant for hyperactivity/impulsivity. When examining independent effects, spatial working memory and disorganized attachment were related to inattention, whereas spatial working memory and dysregulation of happiness/exuberance were related to hyperactivity/impulsivity. Our findings showing that disorganized attachment is longitudinally related to ADHD symptoms over and above the influence of both neuropsychological functioning and early ADHD symptom levels highlights the importance of including measures of attachment representations when trying to understand the development of ADHD symptoms. If replicated in more "at-risk" samples, these findings could also suggest that parent-child attachment should be taken into consideration when children are referred for assessment and treatment of ADHD.

Parental monitoring in late adolescence: relations to ADHD symptoms and longitudinal predictors.

In this study, we aimed to replicate Stattin and Kerr's (2000) study on parental monitoring and adolescents' deviant behavior, to extend their findings to ADHD symptoms, and to examine the longitudinal predictors (8-18 years) of parental knowledge and child disclosure. Results showed that conduct problems were primarily associated with parental knowledge and child disclosure, but not with parental solicitation and control. A similar pattern was observed for ADHD symptoms. However, while the relations for conduct problems were generally independent of ADHD symptoms, the relations for ADHD symptoms were primarily non-significant after controlling for conduct problems. Moreover, early behavior problems, but not insecure/disorganized attachment, were associated with parental knowledge and child disclosure in adolescence. In conclusion, child disclosure is primarily associated with deviant behavior rather than ADHD, and early child problem behavior is a more important predictor of child disclosure (implicating reciprocal relations between these two constructs) than is insecure/disorganized attachment.

Scrolling for fun or to cope? Associations between social media motives and social media disorder symptoms in adolescents and young adults.

Introduction: Although not yet recognized as an official disorder, Social Media Disorder (SMD) has recently received considerable interest in the research. However, relatively little is known about underlying motives for social media use and to what extent motives show differential associations with SMD symptom severity and SMD diagnosis. The overall aim of the present study was therefore to examine motives for social media use in relation to (1) which motives are most common, (2) associations between motives and both SMD symptom severity and SMD diagnosis, and (3) the effects of sex and age. Methods: Data were collected through a digital survey (n = 1820) and included both high school students (n = 924) and university students (n = 896). Six different motives were assessed, and SMD was measured in relation to both Heavy Involvement and Negative Consequences of social media use. Results: The results showed that the most common social media use motives were Entertainment, Social Maintenance, and Information and Skills. However, it was the three least common motives - Social Compensation, Self-status, and Escape - that were most strongly associated with SMD symptom severity and SMD diagnosis. These three motives explained as much as 42% of the variance in negative consequences of social media use. Only a few small effects of sex or age were found. Discussion: Some social media use motives are much more strongly associated with SMD than others are. This could indicate that prevention and intervention programs should target these motives specifically, rather than focusing on social media use in general.

"It was very nice to be in a room where everyone had ADD-that's kind of VIP": Exploring clients' perceptions of group CBT for ADHD inattentive presentation.

OBJECTIVES: This qualitative study explored the perceptions of adult clients participating in a new psychological treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder inattentive presentation (ADHD-I, also called "attention deficit disorder", ADD). The study aimed to explore (i) what aspects of treatment the participants found to be helpful, and (ii) if there were areas that ought to be developed to make the protocol more useful to clients with ADHD-I. METHODS: Participants were recruited from treatment groups following the protocol of cognitive-behavioral therapy for ADHD-I (CADDI), at three psychiatric outpatient units in Stockholm, Sweden. Individual semi-structured interviews, lasting on average 44,6 minutes, were conducted with 14 adults after the completion of CADDI. Interviews explored participants' perceptions of CADDI, its usefulness, and asked for suggestions for improvement. Interviews were conducted by independent interviewers and were transcribed verbatim. The text was analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. RESULTS: The analysis generated three themes: "Factors of importance for change", with the subthemes; the group, therapeutic components, structure of treatment, and motivation,"Gains in treatment", with the subthemes; insight and understanding, increased attention, and planning and acting, and "Challenges with ADHD-I and remaining needs", with the subthemes; ADHD as a lifelong condition, maintaining gains in treatment, and wish for further support. CONCLUSIONS: Participants emphasized the importance of the group setting as a facilitator of therapeutic effects of increased understanding and self-acceptance. Further, they considered the practice of mindfulness to enhance attention and awareness of thoughts, feelings, and activities and considered the structure of treatment as supporting the work in therapy. These findings support the value of the group setting and confirm the usefulness of CADDI. However, participants were concerned about how to maintain gains of treatment after its termination and suggested follow-up sessions to improve the CADDI protocol. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Preregistered at Clinical Trials: NCT05037903.

Parental Experiences of Distance Learning in Families with and without an Adolescent with ADHD/ASD: A Large Qualitative Survey Study.

One of the greatest COVID-19-related challenges for children and their families was managing distance learning due to school closures. We also know from previous research that families with a child with a neurodevelopmental disorder such as ADHD or ASD were struggling more than others but also experienced some positive effects. However, few qualitative studies have been conducted. The present study therefore aimed to investigate parental experiences of the negative and positive effects of distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in a large sample of families with an adolescent with ADHD and/or ASD and a matched comparison group (n = 682). Data were collected through open-ended questions as part of a larger survey study. Five main themes with different sub-themes were identified for both negative and positive effects: (1) Teaching, (2) Social, (3) Support, (4) Child factors, and (5) Home environment. In addition, the main theme "Technical problems" was identified for negative effects. Families with a child with ADHD/ASD reported negative effects related to "Child factors" and "Support" more frequently than the controls, as well as negative effects related to some aspects of "Teaching" and "Technical problems". Regarding positive effects, significant group differences were primarily found for the theme "Child factors". These findings are discussed both in terms of how to best prepare for possible future pandemics, but also of how to best provide educational support for children with ADHD and/or ASD when schools are open.

Multiple deficits in ADHD: executive dysfunction, delay aversion, reaction time variability, and emotional deficits.

BACKGROUND: The notion that ADHD constitutes a heterogeneous disorder is well accepted. However, this study contributes with new important knowledge by examining independent effects of a large range of neuropsychological deficits. In addition, the study investigated whether deficits in emotional functioning constitute a dissociable component of ADHD. METHOD: The study included children with ADHD (n = 102; 7-13 years) and a control sample individually matched with regard to age and gender. The administered tasks were designed to tap into three different neuropsychological domains: executive functions (i.e., working memory, inhibition, and shifting), delay aversion, and reaction time variability. Parent ratings of emotion regulation and a test of emotion recognition were also included. RESULTS: Children with ADHD differed significantly from controls on all measures, except for delay aversion and recognition of disgust. No main effects of gender or interaction effects of gender and group were found. More importantly, executive functioning, reaction time variability, and emotional functioning all contributed independently to distinguishing between children with ADHD and controls. CONCLUSIONS: The current study supports the view of ADHD as a heterogeneous disorder related to multiple neuropsychological deficits. In addition, emotional functioning appears to be an area of importance for ADHD that needs to be incorporated into future theoretical models.

COVID-19 Restrictions Resulted in Both Positive and Negative Effects on Digital Media Use, Mental Health, and Lifestyle Habits.

While studies have reported effects on digital media during the COVID-19 restrictions, few have included data prior to the pandemic, and most have only measured screen time. We therefore investigated changes in specific digital media activities, as well as mental health and lifestyle habits, in a longitudinal study of adolescents spanning from before the pandemic (T1) to one month into restrictions (T2) and one year later when schools had reopened (T3). Adolescents (16-19 years) rated smartphone use, problematic/addictive media use, negative experiences (e.g., victimization), mental health (i.e., irritability, stress, and closeness), and protective lifestyle habits (i.e., sleep and exercise). Results showed initial decreases in irritability and negative digital experiences, increases in sleep and exercise, as well as a decrease in closeness during remote learning (T2). However, these changes returned to, or superseded, their initial levels at follow-up (T3). There were also increases in digital media use and stress at T3. Conclusively, by investigating specific digital media activities and collecting data both prior to and during different phases of the pandemic, we were able to find both positive and negative effects.

Group-based emotion regulation skills training for adults with ADHD: A feasibility study in an outpatient psychiatric setting.

The aim of this open non-controlled clinical trial was to investigate the feasibility and preliminary treatment effects of a new group-based skills training program for adult ADHD: Group Therapy for Improving Emotional Acceptance and Regulatory Skills in Adults with ADHD (GEARS). Out of the 226 allocated patients, 213 initiated the treatment and 170 (80%) were considered treatment completers (i.e., attending at least 9 out of 14 sessions). A total of 158 of the completers also completed pre- and post-treatment assessments, and 126 provided assessments at the 3-month follow-up. Treatment credibility received high ratings, as did treatment satisfaction. Preliminary treatment effects showed significant improvements in emotion regulation with large effect sizes. Significant effects were also found for all secondary outcome variables: ADHD symptom levels, depression, anxiety, and quality of life. All significant effects remained at the 3-month follow-up. In conclusion, GEARS should be considered a feasible treatment in an outpatient psychiatric setting. The results also indicate that GEARS could be an effective treatment for adults with ADHD who are also experiencing problems with emotion regulation. However, a randomized controlled trial is needed to further evaluate the effectiveness of this new treatment.

Screen time and addictive use of gaming and social media in relation to health outcomes.

Introduction: This study examined associations between screen time and addictive use (i.e., heavy involvement and negative consequences) of gaming and social media, and their independent effects on health outcomes. Methods: Survey data were collected from 2,265 participants (mean age = 21.57). Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Social Media Disorder (SMD) were measured with the Gaming and Social Media Questionnaire (GSMQ-9), with separate measures for heavy involvement and negative consequences. Screen time was measured by weekly hours of gaming and social media. Assessed health outcomes were psychological problems, low self-concept, social problems, sleep problems, and sleep time. Results: Screen time and addictive use were significantly associated for both gaming and social media, with associations being stronger for symptoms of heavy involvement compared to symptoms of negative consequences. However, despite significant associations, a substantial proportion of the participants with a high screen time did not meet any or just one symptom of addiction. More importantly, it was primarily negative consequences that had independent effects on health outcomes, except for sleep. High levels of heavy involvement in gaming, were even related to lower, not higher, levels of psychological problems. Conclusion: The present findings study show that screen time is a poor indicator of addictive use of gaming and social media. Given that it was primarily negative consequences of gaming or social media that had effects on health outcomes, our study also emphasizes the need to distinguish between different types of addictive use and to further examine the diagnostic validity of the nine IGD symptom criteria.

The role of executive function deficits, delay aversion and emotion dysregulation in internet gaming disorder and social media disorder: Links to psychosocial outcomes.

Background and aims: It has been argued that it is important to consider underlying mechanisms of mental health problems. Previous studies have shown that executive deficits, delay aversion, and emotion dysregulation are related to Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Social Media Disorder (SMD). However, the present study is the first to investigate whether these neuropsychological deficits show additive effects or if they interact. The present study also investigated whether these deficits mediate the association between IGD/SMD and psychosocial outcomes. Methods: The study involved 995 university students who completed a survey measuring IGD/SMD symptom severity, neuropsychological functions, and psychosocial outcomes. Both dimensional and categorical analyses were used to assess the associations between neuropsychological functions and IGD/SMD. Simple and multiple mediation analyses were conducted to examine if neuropsychological functioning mediates the association between IGD/SMD and psychosocial outcomes. Results: All neuropsychological functions were significantly associated with both IGD and SMD symptom severity. However, only inhibition and emotion regulation, as well as delay aversion for SMD, remained significant when controlling for the overlap between different functions. Associations were significantly stronger for men compared to women for IGD. In the categorical analyses, individuals with IGD/SMD were more likely to have neuropsychological deficits (odds ratios between 3.33 and 8.81). Finally, all neuropsychological functions, except inhibition, were significant mediators in the link between IGD/SMD and psychosocial outcomes. Discussion and conclusions: These results shed light on the neuropsychological underpinnings of IGD/SMD, which can be used to identify more homogenous subgroups and provide more individualized treatment options.

Parent-child attachment and executive functioning in relation to ADHD symptoms in middle childhood.

This study investigated attachment representations and executive functioning (i.e., response inhibition and working memory) at age 8½ in relation to ADHD symptoms one year later. Well-validated laboratory measures of both executive functioning and attachment representations were used. Additive, interaction, as well as mediation effects were investigated. The results showed that attachment disorganization and executive functioning were independently related to ADHD symptoms, even when using conduct problems as a covariate. No significant interaction effects were found, and executive functioning was not found to act as a mediator between attachment disorganization and ADHD symptoms. In conclusion, attachment disorganization had a significant effect on ADHD symptoms, independent of both executive functioning and conduct problems, which suggests that the parent-child attachment is a factor that needs to be included if we are to more fully understand the development of ADHD.

Neuropsychological deficits in relation to ADHD symptoms, quality of life, and daily life functioning in young adulthood.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is related to multiple neuropsychological deficits. However, most previous studies, especially studies of adult samples, have not taken the overlap between different neuropsychological deficits into account. In addition, the link between neuropsychological deficits and daily life functioning and quality of life needs to be further investigated. The aim was therefore to investigate the independent effects of executive deficits, delay-related behaviors and emotion dysregulation on ADHD symptom levels, daily life functioning, and quality of life in a non-clinical sample of younger adults. Results showed independent effects of all three neuropsychological deficits on the two ADHD symptom domains. With regard to daily life functioning and quality of life, bivariate relations were found to all three neuropsychological deficits. However, it was primarily the associations to executive deficits that remained significant when studying independent effects. Executive deficits were related to daily life functioning and quality of life also when controlling for ADHD symptom levels. Conclusively, this study shows that ADHD is related to multiple neuropsychological deficits, even in adulthood. Previous studies may have overestimated the importance of delay-related behaviors and emotion dysregulation for daily life functioning, as they have failed to control for the effects of executive deficits.

Association of Perinatal and Childhood Ischemic Stroke With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Importance: Early detection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) plays a crucial role in reducing negative effects on everyday life, including academic failure and poor social functioning. Children who survive ischemic strokes risk major disabilities, but their risk of ADHD has not been studied in nationwide cohorts. Objective: To assess the risk of ADHD in children after pediatric ischemic stroke. Design, Setting, and Participants: Participants in this Swedish nationwide cohort study included 1320 children diagnosed with ischemic stroke recorded in linked Swedish national registers from January 1, 1969, to December 31, 2016, without prior ADHD diagnosis. Ten matched controls were identified for each index case, and first-degree relatives were identified for index individuals and controls. Analyses were stratified by perinatal and childhood strokes and presence of comorbid adverse motor outcomes and/or epilepsy. End of follow-up was the date of ADHD diagnosis, death, or December 31, 2016, whichever occurred first. Data analyses were performed August 1 to 28, 2021. Exposures: Pediatric ischemic stroke. Main Outcomes and Measures: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified using codes from the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision, and/or prescribed ADHD medication recorded in the Medical Birth Register, National Patient Register, or Prescribed Drug Register after stroke. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to assess adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) for ADHD after pediatric stroke, adjusting for parental age and ADHD in first-degree relatives. Results: Of 1320 children with stroke included in the analysis (701 boys [53.1%]), 75 (45 boys [60.0%]) were diagnosed with ADHD after stroke compared with 376 (252 boys [67.0%]) among the controls (aHR, 2.00 [95% CI, 1.54-2.60]). The risk was increased after both perinatal (aHR, 2.75 [95% CI ,1.65-4.60]) and childhood (aHR, 1.82 [95% CI, 1.34-2.48]) strokes and were similar if children born preterm or small for gestational age were excluded. Compared with controls, risks of ADHD were higher among children with perinatal stroke and adverse motor outcomes and/or epilepsy (aHR, 6.17 [95% CI, 2.80-13.62]) than among those without these comorbidities (aHR, 1.65 [95% CI, 0.80-3.42]). However, findings were similar in childhood stroke for children with adverse motor outcomes and/or epilepsy (aHR, 1.80 [95% CI, 1.12-2.89]) and among those without these comorbidities (aHR, 1.92 [95% CI, 1.28-2.90]). Conclusions and Relevance: This cohort study of 1320 children with pediatric ischemic stroke suggests that there is an increased risk of ADHD, particularly in children with adverse motor outcomes and/or epilepsy, compared with controls. The risk increases after childhood strokes regardless of comorbidities.

Distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic for children with ADHD and/or ASD: a European multi-center study examining the role of executive function deficits and age.

BACKGROUND: One of the COVID-19 pandemic consequences that has affected families the most is school lockdowns. Some studies have shown that distance learning has been especially challenging for families with a child with neurodevelopmental disorders such as ADHD or ASD. However, previous studies have not taken the heterogeneity of these disorders into account. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate differences between families with a child with ADHD, ASD, or both conditions, and to examine the role of underlying deficits in executive functioning (EF) in both children and parents in relation to negative and positive effects of distance learning. METHODS: Survey data assessing both negative and positive experiences of distance learning were collected from parents with a child aged 5-19 years in seven Western European countries: the UK, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium. Altogether, the study included 1010 families with a child with ADHD and/or ASD and an equally large comparison group of families with a child without mental health problems. We included measures of three different types of negative effects (i.e., effects on the child, effects on the parent, and lack of support from school) and positive effects on the family. RESULTS: Results confirmed that families with a child with ADHD, ASD or a combination of ADHD and ASD showed higher levels of both negative and positive effects of distance learning than the comparison group. However, few differences were found between the clinical groups. Group differences were more pronounced for older compared to younger children. Regarding the role of both ADHD/ASD diagnosis and EF deficits, primarily children's EF deficits contributed to high levels of negative effects. Parent EF deficits did not contribute significantly beyond the influence of child EF deficits. Families of children with ADHD/ASD without EF deficits experienced the highest levels of positive effects. CONCLUSIONS: School closings during COVID-19 have a major impact on children with EF problems, including children with neurodevelopmental disorders. The present study emphasizes that schools should not focus primarily on whether a student has a neurodevelopmental disorder, but rather provide support based on the student's individual profile of underlying neuropsychological deficits.