Foot and mouth disease in selected districts of western Ethiopia: seroprevalence and associated risk factors.

A study was conducted in western Ethiopia--in two districts of Oromia state and four districts of Beneshangul Gumuz state--to determine the seroprevalence of foot and mouth disease and the associated risk factors, using multistage random sampling. A 3ABC blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure antibody against the non-structural protein of foot and mouth disease virusto differentiate between vaccinated and infected animals.Atotal of 1,144 sera from 181 herds were collected and examined. The overall seroprevalence at animal level and herd level was 9% (95% Cl 7.2-10.6) and 38.1% (95% CI 29.1-47.1), respectively. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were recorded among different species, with 13%, 5% and 3% seropositivity in cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in herd seroprevalence were observed among districts, with 52%, 50%, 50%, 44%, 21% and 11% in Gidami, Begi, Tongo, Bambasi, Mange and Asosa districts, respectively. In univariable and multivariable logistic regression, the variables that had a positive relationship with seroprevalence at herd level (p < 0.05) were herd size, contact of livestock with ungulate wildlife, and contact of animals with animals/herds of a different peasant association. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis indicated that, at the animal level, age and species had a statistically significant association (p < 0.05) with seropositivity. In conclusion, herd size, contact of livestock with ungulate wildlife, contact between herds from different peasant associations, and the age and species of the animals were the main risk factors for virus circulation in the study area.

Comparative evaluation of the Rose Bengal plate test, standard tube agglutination test and complement fixation test for the diagnosis of human brucellosis.

In this study, 241 serum samples from individuals exposed to brucellosis were subjected to the Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT); the titre was estimated by standard tube agglutination test (STAT), with positive > or = 80 IU/ml. Randomly selected sera (n = 81) were analysed by complement fixation test (CFT): titre > or = 1:4 was considered positive. Of 241 sera subjected to RBPT and STAT, 177 were negative in both tests; 5 samples tested negative by RBPT but positive by STAT. None was positive by RBPT and negative by STAT. Of 81 sera subjected to CFT, 23 (28.4%) were positive. Both RBPT and CFT found 18 samples positive; 5 samples were positive by CFT and negative by RBPT. Comparison of STAT with CFT showed 13 samples positive by STAT but negative by CFT, and 4 positive by CFT but negative by STAT. The sensitivity and specificity of STAT were 82.6% and 77.6%, respectively, with CFT as gold standard. No test is perfect, and the clinical history coupled with a combination of two or more tests will reduce diagnostic errors.

Prevalence of bovine cysticercosis and hydatidosis in Jimma municipal abattoir, South West Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study to determine the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis and hydatidosis was conducted from October 2007 to March 2008 in cattle slaughtered at the Jimma municipal abattoir. Cyst distribution and viability of bovine cysticercosis and hydatidosis were also determined. A total of 512 carcasses were inspected of which 15 (2.93%) and 161 (31.44%) were infected with Taenia saginata metacestodes and hydatid cysts, respectively. From a total of 109 cysticerci collected from infected carcasses, 47 (43.12%) were viable. The anatomical distribution of the cysticerci was, shoulder muscle (39.5%), heart (33.9%), neck muscle (13.8%), tongue (10.1%), masseter muscles (1.8%) and diaphragm (0.9%). Of the 1171 hydatid cysts collected 223 (19.0%) were fertile, 505 (43.1%) sterile, 49 (29.8%) calcified and 94 (8.0%) contained pus. A greater proportion of fertile cysts were found in the lungs than in other organs. It was concluded that these zoonotic cestodes deserve due attention to safeguard public health, and that further studies are needed on genotyping, epidemiology and public health importance of Echinococcus granulosus in the study area.

Milk production, quality, and consumption in Jimma (Ethiopia): Facts and producers', retailers', and consumers' perspectives.

Four studies were performed to quantify milk production, quality and consumption in the town Jimma, Ethiopia. First, 47 dairy farmers and 44 milk retailers were interviewed to gain more insights in dairy farming and marketing, and associated constraints. Second, bulk milk samples (n=188) were collected for 4 consecutive weeks to investigate milk quality [Total Bacterial Counts (TBC), Coliform Counts (CC), Somatic Cell Counts (SCC), and antimicrobial residues]. Third, (bulk) milk samples from 32 farms, 46 milk retailers and the 3 local milk collection centers were collected to determine the presence of oxacillin susceptible-and oxacillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Fourth, 208 adult inhabitants were interviewed to gain more insight in milk consumption and associated concerns of consumers. The average dairy farm included in the studies consisted of 5 lactating cows, produced 43 liters of milk per day and was owned by male, literate adults. Milk was sold to retailers (71% of the production) and directly to customers (25%) without any quality control, whereas 4% was self-consumed. Shortage of animal nutrition and adulteration of the milk were the main constraints for farmers and retailers, respectively. The median TBC, CC and SCC were 122,500CFU/mL, 1,005CFU/mL and 609,500cells/mL, respectively. Antimicrobial residues were detected in 20% of all samples. In general, the milk quality was considered to be poor (TBC>10,000CFU/mL, and/or CC>100CFU/mL, and/or SCC>400,000cells/mL and/or presence of antimicrobial residues) in 97% of all samples. S. aureus was isolated from 12 (38%), 13 (33%), and 2 out of 3 of the milk samples originating from the dairy farms, the milk retailers, and the milk collection centers, respectively. Seven (26%) of the isolates were resistant to oxacillin suggesting the presence of MRSA (Lee, 2003). Local milk is occasionally consumed by adults but more frequently by children. Adults mainly drink spontaneously fermented milk (57% of 105 interviewees consuming local milk) whereas most milk for children is boiled (86% of 110 households with children consuming local milk). Most consumers are concerned about adulteration and milk borne diseases but not about antimicrobial residues. Educated consumers (secondary school or higher) were more likely to boil milk for own consumption, to be concerned about antimicrobial residues in milk, to be concerned about milk borne diseases and to be willing to pay more for milk with proven good quality compared to poorly educated consumers. We conclude that milk quality incentives should be introduced in Jimma, and investments should be made in knowledge transfer, training, milk collection systems and a central milk quality lab.

Pathogen group specific risk factors for clinical mastitis, intramammary infection and blind quarters at the herd, cow and quarter level in smallholder dairy farms in Jimma, Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study on clinical mastitis, intramammary infection (IMI) and blind quarters was conducted on 50 smallholder dairy farms in Jimma, Ethiopia. A questionnaire was performed, and quarters of 211 cows were sampled and bacteriologically cultured. Risk factors at the herd, cow, and quarter level for clinical mastitis and (pathogen-specific) intramammary infection were studied using multilevel modeling. As well, factors associated with quarters being blind were studied. Eleven percent of the cows and 4% of the quarters had clinical mastitis whereas 85% of the cows and 51% of the quarters were infected. Eighteen percent of the cows had one or more blind quarter(s), whereas 6% of the quarters was blind. Non-aureus staphylococci were the most frequently isolated pathogens in both clinical mastitis cases and IMI. The odds of clinical mastitis was lower in herds where heifers were purchased in the last year [odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval: 0.11 (0.01-0.90)], old cows (>4 years) [OR: 0.45 (0.18-1.14)], and quarters not showing teat injury [OR: 0.23 (0.07-0.77)]. The odds of IMI caused by any pathogen was higher in herds not practicing teat drying before milking (opposed to drying teats with 1 towel per cow) [OR: 1.68 (1.05-2.69)], cows in later lactation (>180 DIM opposed to ≤90 DIM) [OR: 1.81 (1.14-2.88)], cows with a high (>3) body condition score (BCS) [OR: 1.57 (1.06-2.31)], right quarters (opposed to a left quarter position) [OR: 1.47 (1.10-1.98)], and quarters showing teat injury [OR: 2.30 (0.97-5.43)]. Quarters of cows in herds practicing bucket-fed calf feeding (opposed to suckling) had higher odds of IMI caused by Staphylococcus aureus [OR: 6.05 (1.31-27.90)]. Except for BCS, IMI caused by non-aureus staphylococci was associated with the same risk factors as IMI caused by any pathogen. No access to feed and water immediately after milking [OR: 2.41 (1.26-4.60)], higher parity [OR: 3.60 (1.20-10.82)] and tick infestation [OR: 2.42 (1.02-5.71)] were risk factors for quarters being blind. In conclusion, replacement of old cows, prevention of teat injuries/lesions, drying teats with 1 towel per cow before milking, improving fertility in order to shorten the lactation period, allowing (restricted) suckling, access to feed and water immediately after milking, and improving tick control could improve udder health in Jimma.

Risk factors associated with subclinical mastitis as detected by California Mastitis Test in smallholder dairy farms in Jimma, Ethiopia using multilevel modelling.

The prevalence of subclinical mastitis and associated risk factors at the herd, cow and quarter level were studied using multilevel modelling in smallholder dairy farms in Jimma, Ethiopia. Forty-two herds, out of the 55 dairy farms located in Jimma (76%), were visited, a questionnaire was performed, and 635 quarters belonging to 176 lactating cows were screened to detect the presence of subclinical mastitis using the California Mastitis Test (CMT). Sixty-two percent of the cows and 51% of the quarters were subclinically infected. Quarters from cows in later stage of lactation (>180 DIM) [opposed to early lactation (<90 DIM)] were more likely to be subclinically infected (OR=2.40, 95% CI=1.44-3.99). Overall, quarters from cows milked by squeezing (as opposed to stripping) were less likely to be subclinically infected (OR=0.45, 95% CI=0.29-0.71), although quarters from cows with tick-infested udders were more likely to be subclinically infected when milked by squeezing (as opposed to stripping). The milking technique did not influence the likelihood of infection in cows without ticks on the udder. This study stresses the high prevalence of subclinical mastitis in smallholder dairy farms in Jimma and a lack of awareness of the existence of the disease among dairy farmers. Implementation of a mastitis prevention program adapted to the local needs, including a focus on milking technique, application of appropriate tick control measurements as well as fertility management, allowing cows to be dried-off at a more appropriate moment, are needed. To conclude, milking by squeezing instead of stripping, but not of cows with tick-infested udders, as well as fertility management could reduce the subclinical mastitis prevalence (and incidence) on the short term.

Abattoir evidence on association between uterine and ovarian abnormalities in Ethiopian highland ewes.

A study was conducted on 3275 non-pregnant Ethiopian highland ewes slaughtered at the Addis Ababa municipal abattoir to determine whether uterine and ovarian abnormalities were associated. Each reproductive tract was examined for the presence of ovarian cysts, ovarobursal adhesions and gross uterine abnormalities. The percentage of ewes with ovarian cysts, ovarobursal adhesions and combination of both on the same ovary was 4.3%, 7.6% and 1.7%, respectively. The percentage of uterine abnormalities in tracts with ovarian cysts, ovarobursal adhesions, combined ovarian cysts and ovarobursal adhesions and those with normal ovaries was 46.1%, 31.9%, 46.3% and 4.3%, respectively. The prevalence of uterine abnormalities including hydro/mucometra, endometritis and pyometra was significantly higher (P<0.001) in ewes with abnormal ovarian conditions than in those with normal ovaries. Also, the prevalence of uterine abnormalities was higher (P<0.01) in ewes with ovarian cysts than in those with ovarobursal adhesions alone while in those ewes with co-existing ovarian cysts and ovarobursal adhesions it did not differ (P>0.05) from those with either of these ovarian conditions. Among uterine abnormalities hydro/mucometra was higher (P<0.01) in ewes with abnormal ovaries. In both groups of ewes with and without ovarian abnormalities pyometra was the least prevalent uterine disorder. These results indicate a direct strong association between uterine and ovarian abnormalities in the Ethiopian highland ewes.