Neuropsychological outcomes after frontal lobectomy to treat intractable epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: Frontal lobectomy is often used as a surgical treatment for frontal lobe epilepsy, especially when a large epileptogenic zone in the frontal lobe is inferred from preoperative evaluation. The frontal lobe is important for cognitive functions such as executive functions and verbal fluency, but the neuropsychological outcome after a frontal or prefrontal lobectomy that includes both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and ventral prefrontal cortex has not been studied thoroughly. In the present study, we evaluated neuropsychological outcomes after patients with frontal lobe epilepsy received a frontal or prefrontal lobectomy. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the data of patients with frontal lobe epilepsy who underwent a frontal or prefrontal lobectomy that includes both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and ventral prefrontal cortex at 16 years or older from October 2004 to December 2014, with a minimum postoperative follow-up of 24 months. We analyzed and compared neuropsychological outcomes, including executive functions, verbal fluency, intelligence, and memory, before and after the operation. RESULTS: Eighteen patients were 16 years or older and underwent pre- and postoperative (2 years after the operation) neuropsychological evaluations. Patients showed significant deterioration only on the Benton Visual Retention Test. Performance on tests of frontal lobe functions, such as executive function and verbal fluency, showed no significant deterioration. CONCLUSIONS: Overall cognitive performance, including functions widely thought to depend on the frontal lobe, is stable after a frontal or prefrontal lobectomy to treat frontal lobe epilepsy.

Is additional mesial temporal resection necessary for intractable epilepsy with cavernous malformations in the temporal neocortex?

PURPOSE: Cavernous malformation (CM) in the temporal neocortex causes intractable epilepsy. Whether to resect additional mesial temporal structures in addition to the lesionectomy is a still controversial issue. To clarify the need for the procedure, we retrospectively analyzed pre- and postoperative clinical data of patients with surgically removed CM. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We included data from 18 patients with CM in the temporal neocortex who presented with intractable epilepsy. Eleven patients of our early series were treated with extended resection, i.e., lesionectomy and the resection of additional mesial temporal structures. Seven patients underwent lesionectomy, i.e., removal of the CM and of hemosiderin-stained surrounding brain tissue. Pathological assessments of the resected hippocampus were performed. Chronic intracranial electroencephalography (EEG) recordings were obtained in 6 patients. We performed perioperative neuropsychological assessments in all patients. RESULTS: The seizure outcome was recorded as Engel class I in 17 patients (94.4%); Ia = 12 (66.7%) Ib = 2 (11.1%), Ic = 1 (5.6%), Id = 2 (11.1%), and class IIb in one patient (5.6%). Adding resection of the mesial temporal structures to lesionectomy did not alter the seizure outcome. Pathology of hippocampus revealed limited neuronal loss in CA4. Ictal onsets in the ipsilateral lateral cortex were detected in all 6 patients who underwent intracranial EEG. In 4 patients each, we also detected ictal onsets from the ipsilateral mesial temporal structures and from the contralateral temporal lobe. Postoperatively, in the patients where their CM was located in the language-dominant hemisphere (n = 10), the full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) and the performance IQ increased (p < 0.05), whereas the verbal memory (WMS-R) deteriorated in two of 5 patients. CONCLUSION: Excellent seizure outcomes were obtained even the lesionectomy alone. To confirm appropriate surgical strategy for lateral temporal CM with intractable epilepsy, further studies in large sample size are needed.

Significance of Very-High-Frequency Oscillations (Over 1,000Hz) in Epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: We previously reported ictal very-high-frequency oscillations (VHFO) of 1,000 to 2,500Hz recorded by subdural macroelectrodes using a 10-kHz sampling rate. The purpose of this study was to clarify the clinical significance of ictal VHFO in neocortical epilepsy. METHODS: This study included 13 patients with neocortical epilepsy who underwent subdural electrode implantation and had at least 1 seizure recorded at a 10-kHz sampling rate and were followed for more than 2 years postoperatively. Extent of resection was determined considering the seizure onset zone (SOZ) and irritative zone, structural lesion, and functional areas. Areas showing VHFO and those with HFO were not taken into consideration. The presence or absence of VHFO (>1,000 Hz), HFO (200-1,000Hz) and SOZ, and completeness of resection of these areas were compared with postoperative seizure outcome. RESULTS: Seven patients had favorable (Engel class Ia) and 6 had unfavorable outcomes (other classes). VHFO was recorded in 6 of 7 patients with a favorable outcome. On the contrary, VHFO was recorded in only 1 of 6 patients with unfavorable outcome. The presence of VHFO was significantly associated with favorable outcome. VHFO was recorded on a limited number of electrodes, and VHFO-generating areas were resected completely, whereas HFO-generating areas and/or SOZ were not always resected completely in both favorable and unfavorable outcome groups. INTERPRETATION: The presence of ictal VHFO may be predictive of favorable outcome. Ictal VHFO may be a more specific marker than ictal HFO or SOZ for identifying the core of epileptogenic zone.

Seizures with tonic posturing: Semiologic difference between supplementary sensorimotor area (SSMA) origin and extra-SSMA origin.

In seizures with tonic posturing, differentiation of seizures originating in SSMA from seizures originating in cortices other than SSMA and spreading to SSMA has not been previously attempted. Twenty-two patients were studied with intractable focal epilepsy with tonic limb posturing as the most prominent semiology, who underwent resective surgery and obtained favorable postoperative seizure outcomes. These 22 patients were divided into an SSMA group (N = 12) and an extra-SSMA group (N = 10), according to the location of resection. Resection area in the extra-SSMA group was located in the dorsolateral frontal or prefrontal area in four patients, the frontal operculum (insula) in two, the parietal cortex in three, and the temporoparietal cortex in one patient. Video-recorded seizures were carefully reviewed. Tonic posturing characteristics and the presence or absence of accompanying symptoms were compared between groups. Incidence of preservation of consciousness was significantly higher in the SSMA group (p < 0.001). Patients in the SSMA group demonstrated a propensity for having unilateral or bilateral asymmetrical tonic limb posturing. In contrast, patients in the extra-SSMA group had a statistically significantly higher incidence of bilateral symmetrical tonic limb posturing (p < 0.05). These findings may be helpful in identifying seizure origin.

Preservation of absolute pitch after right amygdalohippocampectomy for a pianist with TLE.

Absolute pitch (AP) ability is a rare musical phenomenon. In the literature, it has been suggested that the relative specialization for pitch processing is in the right temporal lobe in the non-AP population. Since the anatomic basis for absolute pitch is not fully understood and cases of temporal lobe epilepsy of AP possessors are extremely rare, applicability of resection as a treatment of epilepsy in this particular area should be evaluated with caution. In the present study, we examined an AP possessor who suffered from medically refractory temporal lobe epilepsy and underwent right selective amygdalohippocampectomy (SAH). The SAH procedure clearly avoided disturbing important structures for AP, inasmuch as postsurgically she preserved her AP ability and was seizure-free. She did well post-operatively in the test of pure sine wave tones with short reaction time, which could be identified as "true" absolute pitch.

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with no specific histological abnormality: a distinct surgically remediable syndrome.

PURPOSE: The purposes of the study were twofold: to clarify the clinical features and surgical outcome of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) with no specific histological abnormality and to determine the optimal surgical strategy. METHODS: Twelve patients who met the following criteria were included: (1) normal preoperative MRI; (2) intracranial EEG findings consistent with mesial temporal onset of seizures; (3) selective amygdalohippocampectomy (AHE) was performed, and the patient was followed for more than 2years postoperatively; and (4) hippocampal histopathology was nonspecific. Clinical characteristics, intracranial EEG findings, and postoperative seizure outcome were examined. These twelve patients were compared with twenty-one patients with MTLE with unilateral hippocampal sclerosis (HS) on MRI who underwent intracranial EEG before resection (control group). RESULTS: In patients with MTLE with no specific histological abnormality, the age at onset was significantly higher, the history of febrile seizures was significantly less frequent, and preoperative IQ score was significantly higher than that in the control group. The proportion of patients with bitemporal independent and/or nonlateralizing seizure onset on intracranial EEG was 50% in patients with MTLE with nonspecific histopathology and was significantly higher than that in the control group. Seizure outcome was classified as Engel class I in seven patients, class II in three, class III in one, and class IV in one. Seizure outcome was favorable even in three patients with seizures originating more frequently from the side contralateral to the resected side. CONCLUSIONS: Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with no specific histological abnormality is a clinical entity distinctly different from MTLE with HS. Bitemporal independent and/or nonlateralizing seizure onset on intracranial EEG is very common. Although the presence of lateral temporal and/or extratemporal epileptogenicity should always be kept in mind, postoperative seizure outcome after AHE is favorable even in cases with bitemporal independent and/or nonlateralizing seizure onset.

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with amygdalar hamartoma-like lesion: Is it a distinct syndrome?

INTRODUCTION: We examined the clinical, semiological, scalp electroencephalographic (EEG), and neuropsychological features of patients with amygdalar hamartoma-like lesion (AHL) without hippocampal sclerosis (HS). METHODS: This retrospective study included 9 patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) who had an amygdalar lesion on preoperative MRI; underwent mesial temporal resection; were diagnosed with amygdalar hamartoma-like lesion (AHL) without hippocampal sclerosis (HS); were followed up for at least 2 years after surgery; and had a favourable postoperative seizure outcome (Engel Class I). There were 5 women and 4 men, and age at surgery ranged from 19 to 54 (mean, 36.6) years. Clinical characteristics, auras, video-recorded seizure semiology, interictal and ictal EEG, and preoperative neuropsychological data were reviewed. Twenty patients with MTLE with HS who had favourable postoperative seizure outcomes (Engel Class I) were selected as controls. RESULTS: Age at seizure onset was significantly higher in patients with AHL without HS than in those with HS. Fear was more frequently seen in patients with AHL (44 %) than in those with HS (5 %) (P = 0.022). There were no significant differences in interictal epileptiform discharges or ictal EEG pattern. Preoperative full-scale IQ score was significantly higher in the AHL group than in the HS group (mean, 92.9 v. 74.8, P = 0.004), as was preoperative memory quotient score (mean 100.7 v. 85.1, P = 0.028). CONCLUSION: We clarified the clinical, semiological, and neuropsychological features of patients with MTLE-AHL. These findings may be useful for preoperative evaluation, especially of patients with suspected MTLE but without apparent HS on preoperative MRI.

Uneven interhemispheric connections between left and right primary sensori-motor areas.

To clarify the characteristics of interhemispheric connections, we investigated cortico-cortical evoked potentials (CCEP) in human. Fourteen patients with temporal lobe epilepsy who underwent invasive EEG monitoring with bilaterally implanted subdural electrodes were studied. Electric pulse stimuli were given in a bipolar fashion at two adjacent electrodes on and around the motor area (MA) or sensory area (SA), and CCEP responses were recorded by averaging electrocorticograms from the contralateral hemisphere. Seventy-two pairs of electrodes were stimulated, and 468 recordings were analyzed. Fifty-one of 468 recordings demonstrated CCEP responses. Of 51 responses, 16 consisted of an initial positive triphasic wave (Type 1), 27 had an initial negative biphasic wave (Type 2), and 8 showed an initial positive biphasic wave (type 3). The mean latencies of the earliest peaks were 13.1, 28.9, and 29.4 ms in Types 1, 2, and 3 responses, respectively. The responses were more frequently evoked by stimulating facial MA (f-MA) and nonfacial MA (nf-MA) than by stimulating SA or noneloquent area. In both f-MA and nf-MA stimulation, the responses were more frequently recorded at the contralateral f-MA than at the contralateral nf-MA or other areas. SA stimulation never evoked CCEP responses at the contralateral MA or SA. The amplitudes were maximal when f-MA was stimulated and responses recorded at the contralateral f-MA. These findings suggest that the interhemispheric connections are uneven. Both f-MA and nf-MA send dense interhemispheric connections to the contralateral f-MA. SA may have no or only rare direct connection with the contralateral MA or SA.

Ictal very low frequency oscillation in human epilepsy patients.

Using intracranial electroencephalographic recordings, we identified a distinct brain activity in 3 patients with refractory epilepsy characterized by very early occurrence from 8 minutes 10 seconds to 22 minutes 40 seconds prior to clinical seizure onset, periodical appearance of slow negative baseline shift, long interpeak interval of 40 to 120 seconds, and disappearance after clinical seizure. We named this activity "very low frequency oscillation" (VLFO), which reflected a dynamic process during the preictal state. This observation may render new insight into epileptogenesis and provide additional information concerning the epileptogenic zone as well as prediction of epileptic seizures.

Surgical strategy for refractory epilepsy secondary to porencephaly: ictal SPECT may obviate the need for intracranial electroencephalography. Patient series.

BACKGROUND: Surgical treatment of intractable epilepsy caused by porencephaly can be difficult because of poorly localizing or lateralizing electroclinical findings. The authors aimed to determine whether noninvasive evaluations are sufficient in these patients. OBSERVATIONS: Eleven patients were included in this study. The porencephalic cyst was in the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) area in 9 patients, the left posterior cerebral artery area in 1 patient, and the bilateral MCA area in 1 patient. Interictal electroencephalography (EEG) revealed multiregional, bilateral, interictal epileptiform discharges in 5 of 11 patients. In 6 of 10 patients whose seizures were recorded, the ictal EEG was nonlateralizing. Nine patients underwent ictal single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), which revealed lateralized hyperperfusion in 8 of 9 cases. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) was useful for identifying the functional deficit zone. No patient had intracranial EEG. The procedure performed was hemispherotomy in 7 patients, posterior quadrant disconnection in 3 patients, and occipital disconnection in 1 patient. A favorable seizure outcome was achieved in 10 of 11 patients without the onset of new neurological deficits. LESSONS: Ictal SPECT was useful for confirming the side of seizure origin when electroclinical findings were inconclusive. Thorough noninvasive evaluations, including FDG-PET and ictal SPECT, enabled curative surgery without intracranial EEG. Seizure and functional outcomes were favorable.

Semiological differences of focal onset bilateral motor (convulsive) seizure between mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and neocortical epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the semiology of focal onset bilateral motor (convulsive) seizure (FBMS) in patients with intractable focal epilepsy who underwent epilepsy surgery to understand its value in localizing the origin of the seizure. METHODS: The study included 20 patients who underwent resective surgery after intracranial video-EEG monitoring (iEEG) with a favorable seizure outcome (Engel class I), and had at least one FBMS during iEEG. The diagnosis was mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) for 7 patients and neocortical epilepsy (NE) for 13 patients (lateral temporal lobe, 3; posterior cortex, 6; frontal lobe, 3; perirolandic, 1). Videotaped FBMSs were carefully analyzed. RESULTS: A generalized tonic phase appeared in all 7 patients with MTLE, but was absent in 6 of the 13 patients with NE (P = .044). Tonic cry was more frequently observed in MTLE than in NE (P = .012). Facial tonicity preceding limb tonicity was more frequently seen in patients with MTLE (P = .001). CONCLUSION: Notably, patients with MTLE and those with NE showed semiological differences during bilateralization. FBMS includes not only focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizure but also focal to bilateral clonic seizure.

Retained absolute pitch after selective amygdalohippocampectomy.

This study assessed the pre-operative chronic condition and effect of epilepsy surgery in a 21-year-old Japanese woman with drug-resistant right temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). For this patient, it was crucially important to preserve language and her music capabilities, including absolute pitch (AP), which is found in the general population at less than 0.1%. The patient became seizure free, and her AP capability was preserved after selective amygdalohippocampectomy in the non-dominant right hemisphere. Most of the neuropsychological test (WAIS-III and WMS-R) scores remained in the normal range, except for low scores in verbal memory and markedly improved attention/concentration index. The patient's pre- and postoperative brain function related to language and music capabilities were investigated using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) based on two language tasks and a music task (listening to melodies). While task performance was similar in pre- and postoperative examinations, her brain activation patterns markedly differed. The most striking difference was during the music task: areas with significant activation existed in the bilateral frontal and temporal lobes before surgery, whereas postoperative activation was confined to a very limited region in the left angular gyrus. The authors speculate that the surgery triggered some change in functional organization in the brain, which contributed to preserving her capabilities.

Semiology of hyperkinetic seizures of frontal versus temporal lobe origin.

Hyperkinetic seizures are usually associated with frontal lobe epilepsy. However, some patients have hyperkinetic seizures of temporal lobe origin. The semiological differences in hyperkinetic seizures between frontal and temporal lobe epilepsy have not been well studied. Here, we retrospectively assessed ictal semiology in order to distinguish between hyperkinetic seizures of frontal lobe origin and those of temporal lobe origin. We retrospectively reviewed data on patients who had undergone surgery for hyperkinetic seizures of temporal or frontal lobe origin and achieved favourable seizure outcomes (Engel Class I) with a minimum postoperative follow-up of 24 months. We reviewed seizure histories, imaging reports, video-EEG monitoring data, operative records, and pathological findings. We analysed and compared the hyperkinetic semiology of video-recorded seizures of temporal lobe origin and those of frontal lobe origin. Forty hyperkinetic seizures in eight patients (seven adult patients and one 12-year-old patient) with temporal lobe epilepsy and 45 hyperkinetic seizures in nine patients (eight adult patients and one 16-year-old patient) with frontal lobe epilepsy were analysed. Emotional facial expressions (such as fear, laughing, or anger), bilateral forceful elbow flexion, bilateral forceful grasping, facial flushing, and bilateral facial contraction were observed significantly more frequently in seizures of frontal lobe origin. Oroalimentary automatisms, seizures during wakefulness, salivation, and bilateral drop of the corners of the mouth were observed significantly more frequently in seizures of temporal lobe origin. Observation of a number of signs during hyperkinetic manifestations may help to predict whether a seizure originates from the frontal lobe or the temporal lobe.

Risk factors of cognitive impairment in pediatric epilepsy patients with focal cortical dysplasia.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to identify the risk factors of cognitive impairment in pediatric epilepsy patients with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). METHODS: 77 patients with histopathologically confirmed FCD were studied. The statistical relationship between cognition levels and clinical factors at presurgical evaluation was analyzed. Cognitive function was evaluated by development quotient or intelligence quotient (DQ-IQ). RESULTS: Ages at seizure onset were younger than 15 years (mean ±â€¯SD; 5.0 ±â€¯4.2 years). Mean disease duration was 14.5 ±â€¯8.5 years. Mean age at pre-surgical DQ-IQ evaluation was 34.8 ±â€¯10.7 years. Mean DQ-IQ was 60.5 ±â€¯20.5, and 41 of 77 (53.2%) patients had mental retardation (DQ-IQ < 70). Younger seizure onset and seizure clustering were significantly associated with lower DQ-IQ (p < 0.001). A multiple regression study identified higher seizure frequency pattern, a history of epileptic spasm and status epilepticus as aggravating factors of DQ-IQ decline (R2 = 0.63, p < 0.001). On the other hand, the risk was decreased in patients with habitual focal aware seizure and transient seizure-free periods up to 6 months in the course of epilepsy. FCD location (FCD site, extent of radiological lesion and laterality) and histopathology of FCD did not affect DQ-IQ. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that seizure characteristics including higher seizure frequency pattern, a history of epileptic spasm, status epilepticus, seizure clustering and early onset of seizure are risk factors of cognitive impairment in FCD patients.

Posterior cortex epilepsy secondary to ulegyria: is it a surgically remediable syndrome?

PURPOSE: To examine whether surgery is indicated for posterior cortex epilepsy secondary to ulegyria. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Ten patients who underwent surgery for posterior cortex epilepsy with ulegyria and were followed for more than 2 years were included. All patients underwent comprehensive presurgical evaluations. Five patients underwent intracranial electroencephalography (EEG) studies. The posterior cortex including the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesion was resected in all patients. Postoperative follow-up period was 2-12 (mean 6) years. RESULTS: Nine patients had a history of perinatal distress including asphyxia and prolonged labor. Age at seizure onset was 5-11 years, except one patient. Three patients had visual field defects preoperatively. Ulegyria was unilateral in four patients and bilateral but unilateral-predominant in six patients. In most of the cases, the lesions were in the posterior cerebral artery area or the watershed area between middle cerebral and posterior cerebral arteries. In four of five patients who underwent intracranial EEG, seizure onset zones extended outside the lesions. Postoperative seizure outcome was Engel's class I in seven cases, and class III in three cases. Three of four patients whose seizure onset zones were not completely resected achieved class I outcome. Four of six patients with bilateral lesions achieved class I outcome. CONCLUSION: Ulegyria due to perinatal distress is considered to be a major cause of posterior cortex epilepsy. Long-term postoperative seizure outcome is favorable. Resection of MRI lesion is important for seizure relief. Bilateral lesions should not be excluded from surgical indication. The usefulness of intracranial EEG may be limited.

Intracranial EEG findings in patients with lesional lateral temporal lobe epilepsy.

PURPOSE: Intracranial EEG in patients with lesional lateral temporal lobe epilepsy is rarely reported. Therefore, the number of patients with seizures arising independently from ipsilateral mesial structures or contralateral hemisphere has not been clarified. We analyzed the intracranial EEG of cases with localized lesion in the lateral temporal cortex. METHODS: We studied 15 patients who satisfied the following criteria: (1) MRI depicted a lesion less than 4cm in diameter located lateral to the collateral sulcus and at least 3cm posterior to the temporal pole; (2) intracranial EEG with electrodes placed on bilateral temporal lobes captured at least one complex partial seizure; and (3) postoperative follow-up period of 2 years or longer. The mean age of seizure onset was 16.6 years (range, 11-25) and that at surgery was 26.7 years (range, 16-36). RESULTS: A total of 147 complex partial seizures, 51 simple partial seizures, 16 secondarily generalized seizures, and over 80 subclinical seizures were recorded. On the lesional side, many clinical seizures were recorded from the lateral cortex. Independent of the lateral temporal onset seizures, ictal discharges originating from the mesial temporal structures were recorded in 7 of 15 patients (47%). Moreover, onset of ictal discharges from the contralateral temporal lobe was recorded in 7 of 15 patients (47%). Interictal spikes from ipsilateral mesial structures were recorded in all patients. The presence of ipsilateral mesial onset seizures was not associated with hippocampal neuron losses. CONCLUSION: Intracranial EEG analysis revealed that approximately one-half of the patients with structural lesions in the lateral cortex showed independent epileptogenic areas in ipsilateral mesial structures. Although ictal discharges originating from the contralateral temporal lobe were recorded in a half of these patients, this finding does not constitute a contraindication of resective surgery. Interictal spike is not an indicator of whether mesial structures should be resected.

Extraoperative functional mapping of motor areas in epileptic patients by high-frequency cortical stimulation.

OBJECT: The aim of this study was to investigate the usefulness of a short train of high-frequency (500 Hz) cortical stimulation to delineate the primary motor cortex (MI), supplementary motor area (SMA), primary somatosensory cortex (SI), supplementary sensory area (SSA), negative motor area (NMA), and supplementary negative motor area (SNMA) in patients with epilepsy who were undergoing functional mapping. METHODS: Seventeen patients were studied, all of whom underwent functional mapping using 50-Hz electrical stimulation. After these clinical evaluations, cortical stimulations with a short train of electrical pulses at 500 Hz were performed through subdural electrodes placed at the MI, SMA, SI, SSA, NMA, and SNMA, which had been identified by 50-Hz stimulation, and surrounding cortical areas, while surface electromyography readings were recorded. RESULTS: Stimulation of the MI elicited motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in contralateral muscles. Stimulation of the SMA also induced MEPs in contralateral muscles but with longer latencies compared with the MI stimulation. Stimulation of the SMA did not elicit MEPs in ipsilateral muscles. Stimulation of the SI, SSA, NMA, and SNMA did not induce MEPs in any muscle. In one patient, MEPs were elicited without seizure induction by 500-Hz stimulation of the electrodes, whereas a 50-Hz stimulation of the same electrodes induced his habitual seizures. CONCLUSIONS: Extraoperative high-frequency stimulation with MEP monitoring is a useful complementary method for cortical mapping without inducing seizure. Stimulation of SMA induces MEPs in contralateral muscles, with longer latencies compared with the stimulation of MI. This finding may be useful for the differentiation between MI and SMA, especially in the foot motor areas.

Early seizure propagation from the occipital lobe to medial temporal structures and its surgical implication.

Intracranial EEG documentation of seizure propagation from the occipital lobe to medial temporal structures is relatively rare. We retrospectively analyzed intracranial EEG recorded with electrodes implanted in the medial temporal lobe in patients who underwent occipital lobe surgery. Four patients with occipital lesions, who underwent intracranial EEG monitoring with intracerebral electrodes implanted in the medial temporal lobe prior to occipital lobe surgery, were studied. Subdural electrodes were placed over the occipital lobe and adjacent areas. Intracerebral electrodes were implanted into bilateral hippocampi and the amygdala in three patients, and in the hippocampus and amygdala ipsilateral to the lesion in one. In light of the intracranial EEG findings, the occipital lobe was resected but the medial temporal lobe was spared in all patients. The follow-up period ranged from six to 16 years, and seizure outcome was Engel Class I in all patients. Sixty six seizures were analyzed. The majority of the seizures originated from the occipital lobe. In complex partial seizures, ictal discharges propagated to the medial temporal lobe. No seizures originating from the temporal lobe were documented. In some seizures, the ictal-onset zone could not be identified. In these seizures, very early propagation to the medial temporal lobe was observed. Interictal spikes were recorded in the medial temporal lobe in all cases. Intracranial EEG revealed very early involvement of the medial temporal lobe in some seizures. Seizure control was achieved without resection of the medial temporal structures.

Surgical Resection of Amygdala and Uncus.

The amygdala and uncus are located close to important neurovascular structures. We describe a safe technique for resection of amygdala and uncus. Under general anesthesia, the patient is positioned supine, with the head rotated approximately 20 degrees to the unoperated side and slightly extended. By using a trans-anterior T1 subpial approach, the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle is opened, and hippocampectomy is performed. We treat an imaginary plane formed by the inferior circular sulcus of the insula, the endorhinal sulcus, and the inferior choroidal point as the upper border of amygdalar resection. After confirming the position of the inferior choroidal point, the border between the temporal stem and uncus is exposed from anterior to posterior. This border is continuous with the endorhinal sulcus. By exposing the endorhinal sulcus, the anterior choroidal artery and optic tract can be visualized. The amygdala is disconnected through complete exposure of the endorhinal sulcus to the inferior choroidal point. After the lateral side of the uncus is disconnected, the amygdala and uncus are removed en bloc. Since April 2014, we have used the described procedure to remove amygdalar-uncal lesions in 15 patients. The lesion was completely removed in all cases without complications. Histological specimens were obtained in all cases. Our procedure enables safe and complete removal of amygdalar-uncal lesions. Imagining the plane formed by the inferior circular sulcus, inferior choroidal point, and endorhinal sulcus is essential for complete removal of the lesion and for preserving important structures.

Working memory deficit in drug-resistant epilepsy with an amygdala lesion.

This study compared temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients with amygdala lesion (AL) without hippocampal sclerosis (HS) (TLE-AL) with patients with TLE and HS without AL (TLE-HS). Both subtypes of TLE arose from the right hemisphere. The TLE-AL group exhibited a lower Working Memory Index (WMI) on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, third edition (WAIS-III), indicating that the amygdala in the right hemisphere is involved in memory-related function. [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission topography (FDG-PET) showed glucose hypometabolism limited to the right uncus for the TLE-AL group. The results suggest the importance of considering cognitive functions in the non-dominant hemisphere to prevent impairment after surgery.