A case series of 223 patients with depersonalization-derealization syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Depersonalization-derealization syndrome (DDS) is an underdiagnosed and underresearched clinical phenomenon. In Germany, its administrative prevalence is far below the threshold for orphan diseases, although according to epidemiological surveys the diagnosis should be comparable frequent as anorexia nervosa for instance. Against this background, we carried out a large comprehensive survey of a DDS series in a tertiary mental health center with a specialized depersonalization-derealization clinic. To reveal differential characteristics, we compared the DDS patients, who consulted the specialized depersonalization-derealization clinic, with a group of patients with depressive disorders without comorbid DDS from the regular outpatient clinic of the mental health center. METHODS: The sample comprised 223 patients with a diagnosis of depersonalization-derealization-syndrome and 1129 patients with a depressive disorder but without a comorbid diagnosis of DDS. DDS patients were described and compared with depressive outpatients in terms of sociodemographic characteristics, treatment history, treatment wishes, clinical symptomatology, prevailing psychosocial stressors, family history of common mental disorders and history of childhood trauma. RESULTS: Despite the high comorbidity of DDS patients with depressive disorders and comparable burden with symptoms of depression and anxiety, the clinical picture and course of both patient groups differed strongly. DDS patients were younger, had a significant preponderance of male sex, longer disease duration and an earlier age of onset, a higher education but were more often unemployed. They tended to show more severe functional impairment. They had higher rates of previous or current mental health care utilization. Nearly all DDS patients endorsed the wish for a symptom specific counseling and 70.7 % were interested in the internet-based treatment of their problems. DDS patients had lower levels of self-rated traumatic childhood experiences and current psychosocial stressors. However, they reported a family history of anxiety disorders more often. CONCLUSION: In consideration of the selection bias of this study, this case series supports the view that the course of the DDS tends to be long-lasting. DDS patients are severely impaired, utilizing mental health care to a high degree, which nevertheless might not meet their treatment needs, as patients strongly opt for obtaining disorder specific counseling. In view of the size of the problem, more research on the disorder, its course and its optimal treatment is urgently required.

Depersonalization experiences are strongly associated with dizziness and vertigo symptoms leading to increased health care consumption in the German general population.

This study investigated the association of depersonalization (DP) experiences with dizziness and its impact on subjective impairment and health care use. Trained interviewers surveyed a representative sample of 1287 persons using standardized self-rating questionnaires on dizziness, DP, and mental distress. Symptoms of dizziness were reported by 15.8% (n = 201). Thereof, 62.7% endorsed at least one symptom of DP, 40% reported impairment by symptoms of DP, and 8.5% reported clinically significant DP. Regression analyses identified DP as a significant, independent predictor for dizziness symptom severity, health care use, and impairment by dizziness. With regard to the Vertigo Symptom Scale, DP explained 34.1% (p < 0.001) of the variance for severity of symptoms of dysfunction in the balance system. In conclusion, symptoms of DP, highly prevalent in patients complaining of dizziness and vertigo, were independently associated with increased impairment and health care use. The presence of DP symptoms should actively be explored in patients complaining of dizziness.

Persistence of symptoms in primary somatoform vertigo and dizziness: a disorder "lost" in health care?

The aim of this study was to perform a 3-year follow-up of primary somatoform vertigo and dizziness (SVD) regarding health care use and treatment. Ninety-two patients with dizziness underwent detailed vestibular neurophysiological testing and a Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Psychometric assessments comprised the Vertigo Symptom Scale, the Vertigo Handicap Questionnaire, the SCL-90-R, and the Short-Form-36 Health Survey. At the 3-year follow-up, 65 patients with primary SVD (anxiety, n = 29; depression, n = 14; somatoform disorders, n = 22) were reassessed (70.7% response). The patients improved in symptom severity (p < 0.05), handicap (p < 0.01), and physical quality of life (QoL; p < 0.05) but showed no change in emotional distress. A total of 63.1% (of n = 65) had ongoing SVD. A total of 69.2% (of n = 65) received different forms of treatments. A total of 46.1% (of n = 65) searched redundant medical diagnostic procedures. The patients with decreased coping capacity over time obtained the best prognosis. Primary SVD is an ineffectively treated disorder. Recommendations for specific complaint-oriented psychotherapy programs were given.

[Steadfast--effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioral self-management program for patients with somatoform vertigo and dizziness]. / Standfest? Erste Ergebnisse der Entwicklung eines kognitiv-verhaltenstherapeutischen Gruppenschulungsprogramms zur Behandlung des somatoformen Schwindels.

The aim of the study was to evaluate a psychotherapeutic intervention for somatoform vertigo regarding illness perception, severity and psychopathology.Patients underwent a waiting-list control group design (n=10 control group; n=14 intervention group with diagnostics at baseline, post-intervention, 3- and 12-month follow-up). Psychometric assessments comprised the Illness Perception Questionnaire, Vertigo Symptom and Handicap Questionnaire, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and Physical Health Questionnaire.The intervention group improved in personal control (p=0.046; d=0.46), and coherency (p=0.087; d=0.42). Illness beliefs in organic deteriorations could be corrected towards psychosomatic attributions.Steadfast decreased dysfunctional illness representations and increased patient empowerment.

[Childhood trauma and its relation to diagnoses and psychic complaints in patients of an psychosomatic university ambulance]. / Kindheitstraumatisierungen, psychische Beschwerden und Diagnosen bei Patienten in einer psychosomatischen Universitätsambulanz.

The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) was given to 1 439 patients of the outpatient- and consultation/liaison unit of the psychosomatic department of a university hospital. Self-reported emotional, sexual and physical abuse and emotional and physical neglect were related to the mental diagnoses and distress. Patients with childhood trauma (41,4%) reported higher levels of social anxiety, distress and physical complaints than patients without traumatizing childhood experiences. We found relations between emotional abuse and depression and personality disorders, physical abuse and somatoform disorders and sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. The observed relation between specific dimensions of childhood trauma and psychiatric diagnoses is consistent with reports on other clinical samples.

[Validation of the German version of the Vertigo Handicap Questionnaire (VHQ) in patients with vestibular vertigo syndromes or somatoform vertigo and dizziness]. / Deutschsprachige Validierung des Vertigo Handicap Questionnaire (VHQ) anhand einer Patientenstichprobe mit vestibulärem und somatoformem Schwindel.

The Vertigo Handicap Questionnaire (VHQ) by Yardley (1992) assesses physical and psychosocial impairments of vertigo or dizziness. Our study examines the structure, reliability, and aspects of validity of the German version of the VHQ. 98 vestibular vertigo syndromes vs. 90 patients with somatoform vertigo and dizziness were evaluated with the VHQ, symptom severity (VSS), distress (GSI), anxiety and depression (HADS), catastrophizing beliefs (ACQ), fear of body sensations (BSQ), and quality of life (SF-36). For diagnostic classification detailed clinical neurological, neuro-otological and psychosomatic testing were conducted. Principal components analysis identified two factors, which could be confirmed by confirmatory factor analyses: 'handicapped activity'(VHQ-ACT) and 'anxiety' (VHQ-ANX). The VHQ had good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha: 0.92). Test-retest reliability was r = 0.80. We noted close relations between the VHQ, the VSS and measures of emotional distress as aspects of good construct validity. Together with the VSS, the VHQ completes a comprehensive diagnostic screening tool for vertigo or dizziness.

[Screening for depersonalization-derealization with two items of the cambridge depersonalization scale]. / Screening nach Depersonalisation-Derealisation mittels zweier Items der Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale.

Depersonalization (DP) and derealization (DR) are considered to be highly underdiagnosed. Therefore the development of screening instruments is important. From the Cambridge Depersonalization Scale (CDS) two items were extracted discriminating best patients with clinical significant DP from patients without DP. These two Items were assembled to a short version of the CDS. This short version (CDS-2) was tested in a sample of 38 patients with clinical significant DP-DR and 49 patients without or only mild DP-DR. Scores were compared against clinical diagnoses based on a structured interview (gold standard). The CDS-2 was able to differentiate patients with clinical significant DP well from other groups (cut-off of CDS-2>or=3, sensitivity=78.9%, specifity=85.7%) and also showed high reliability (Cronbachs alpha=0.92). Therefore the CDS-2 can be considered as a useful tool for screening and identification of DP-DR.

[Social phobia--an anxiety disorder underdiagnosed in outpatient and consultation-liaison service?]. / Soziale Phobie--eine im psychosomatischen Ambulanz- und Konsildienst unterdiagnostizierte Angsterkrankung?

Social fears are common, whereas Social Phobia is diagnosed infrequently. Therefore, we compared the clinical diagnoses (ICD-10) in an outpatient and CL service of a psychosomatic university hospital to patients' self ratings in social fears on the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS). Over the course of one year 688 patients could be characterized regarding their clinical diagnoses, LSAS-scores, symptom severity (SCL-90R) and psychosomatic complaints (GBB-24). Patients were assigned to three groups by their levels of social fears (LSAS). Social Phobia was diagnosed rarely by clinicians (5.5%), but generalized social fears (LSAS>60) were commonly reported by patients (14.6%). Patients with social fears reported higher distress and more psychosomatic complaints. They were more often diagnosed with Depression, Agoraphobia or Panic Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Effective manualized psychotherapeutic short-term approaches are available for patients with Social Phobia. Therefore, a better clinical identification of this group of patients is desirable.

Psychiatric comorbidity in different organic vertigo syndromes.

OBJECTIVE: A high degree of psychiatric disorders has repeatedly been described among patients with organic vertigo syndromes and attributed to vestibular dysfunction. Yet almost no investigations exist which differentiate between various organic vertigo syndromes with regard to psychiatric comorbidity. The following prospective, interdisciplinary study was carried out to explore whether patients with different organic vertigo syndromes exhibit different psychological comorbidities. METHODS: 68 patients with organic vertigo syndromes (benign paroxysmal positioning vertigo (BPPV) n = 20, vestibular neuritis (VN) n = 18, Menière's disease (MD) n = 7, vestibular migraine (VM) n = 23) were compared with 30 healthy volunteers. All patients and control persons underwent structured neurological and neuro-otological testing. A structured diagnostic interview (-I) (SCID-I) and a battery of psychometric tests were used to evaluate comorbid psychiatric disorders. RESULTS: Patients with VM and MD showed significantly higher prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity (MD = 57%, VM = 65%) especially with anxiety and depressive disorders, than patients with VN (22%) and BPPV (15 %) compared to normal subjects (20 %). These elevated rates of comorbidities resulted in significantly elevated odds-ratios (OR) for the development of comorbid psychiatric disorders in general (for VM OR = 7.5, for MD OR = 5.3) and especially for anxiety disorders (for VM OR = 26.6, for MD OR = 38.7). CONCLUSION: As a consequence, a structured psychological and psychometric testing and an interdisciplinary therapy should be proceeded in cases with complex and prolonged vertigo courses, especially in patients with VM and MD. Possible reasons of these unexpected results in VM and MD are discussed.

STEADFAST: Psychotherapeutic Intervention Improves Postural Strategy of Somatoform Vertigo and Dizziness.

Patients with somatoform vertigo and dizziness (SVD) disorders often report instability of stance or gait and fear of falling. Posturographic measurements indeed indicated a pathological postural strategy. Our goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of a psychotherapeutic and psychoeducational short-term intervention (PTI) using static posturography and psychometric examination. Seventeen SVD patients took part in the study. The effects of PTI on SVD were evaluated with quantitative static posturography. As primary endpoint a quotient characterizing the relation between horizontal and vertical sway was calculated (Q H/V ), reflecting the individual postural strategy. Results of static posturography were compared to those of age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers (n = 28); baseline measurements were compared to results after PTI. The secondary endpoint was the participation-limiting consequences of SVD as measured by the Vertigo Handicap Questionnaire (VHQ). Compared to the healthy volunteers, the patients with SVD showed a postural strategy characterized by stiffening-up that resulted in a significantly reduced body sway quotient before PTI (patients: Q H/V = 0.31 versus controls: Q H/V = 0.38; p = 0.022). After PTI the postural behavior normalized, and psychological distress was reduced. PTI therefore appears to modify pathological balance behaviour. The postural strategy of patients with SVD possibly results from anxious anticipatory cocontraction of the antigravity muscles.

Complaints of sleep disturbances are associated with cardiovascular disease: results from the Gutenberg Health Study.

BACKGROUND: Despite their high prevalence, sleep disorders often remain unrecognized and untreated because of barriers to assessment and management. The aims of the present study were to examine associations of complaints of sleep disturbances with cardiovascular disease, related risk factors, and inflammation in the community and to determine the contribution of sleep disturbances to self-perceived physical health. METHOD: The sample consists of n = 10.000 participants, aged 35 to 74 years of a population based community sample in Germany. Cross-sectional associations of complaints of sleep disturbances with cardiovascular risk factors and disease, biomarkers of inflammation, depression, anxiety, and physical health status were analyzed. RESULTS: 19% of our sample endorsed clinically significant sleep disturbances. In the unadjusted analyses severity of sleep disturbances increased with female sex, low socioeconomic status, living without a partnership, cardiovascular disease, depression, anxiety, poor physical health, increased levels of C-reactive protein and fibrinogen. After multivariate adjustment robust associations with coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction and dyslipidemia remained. Complaints of sleep disturbances were strong and independent contributors to self-perceived poor physical health beyond depression, anxiety and medical disease burden. CONCLUSIONS: Given the high prevalence of complaints of sleep disturbances and their strong impact on health status, increased efforts should be undertaken for their identification and treatment.

Implementing panic-focused psychodynamic psychotherapy into clinical practice.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of manualized panic-focused psychodynamic psychotherapy (PFPP) in routine care in Germany. METHOD: German psychoanalysts were trained according to the PFPP manual. Fifty-four consecutive outpatients with panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) were randomly assigned in a 2:1 ratio to PFPP or cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) plus exposure therapy. Subjects (female 57.4%; mean age 36.2 years) had high rates of psychiatric (68.5%) and somatic (64.8%) comorbidity, and previous psychiatric treatments (57.4%). Assessments were performed pre- and posttreatment and at 6-month follow-up. The primary outcome measure was the Panic Disorder Severity Scale. RESULTS: Both treatments were highly effective. In patients randomized to PFPP, remission was achieved in 44.4% at termination and by 50% at follow-up (CBT 61.1% and 55.6%, respectively). No significant differences were found. Emotional awareness, a posited moderator of good outcome in psychotherapies, was significantly higher in the CBT group at baseline. It was found to be a strong moderator of treatment effectiveness in both treatments. After adjusting for initial Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS) scores, effect sizes (ESs) for the primary outcome were Cohen d = 1.28, from pre- to posttreatment, and d = 1.03, from pretreatment to follow-up, for PFPP, and d = 1.81 and 1.28 for CBT, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: PFPP was implemented effectively into clinical practice by psychoanalysts in the community in a sample with severe mental illness with large ESs. Assessment of LEAS may facilitate the identification of patients suitable for short-term psychotherapy. ( CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS00000245; Universal Trial Number, U1111-1112-4245).

Objectif : Déterminer l'efficacité de la psychothérapie psychodynamique axée sur la panique (PPAP), pratiquée d'après un manuel, dans les soins courants en Allemagne. Méthode : Les psychanalystes allemands ont été formés en conformité avec le manuel de PPAP. Cinquante-quatre patients ambulatoires consécutifs souffrant de trouble panique (avec ou sans agoraphobie) ont été affectés au hasard dans un rapport de 2:1 à la PPAP ou la thérapie cognitivo-comportementale (TCC) en plus d'une thérapie d'exposition. Les sujets (femmes 57,4 %; âge moyen 36,2 ans) avaient des taux élevés de comorbidités psychiatriques (68,5 %) et somatiques (64,8 %), et de traitements psychiatriques précédents (57,4 %). Des évaluations ont été exécutées avant et après le traitement, et au suivi de 6 mois. La principale mesure des résultats était l'échelle de gravité du trouble panique. Résultats : Les deux traitements ont été très efficaces. Chez les patients affectés à la PPAP, la rémission a été atteinte chez 44,4 % des sujets au terme du traitement, et chez 50 % au suivi (TCC 61,1 % et 55,6 %, respectivement). Aucune différence significative n'a été observée. La conscience émotionnelle, un modérateur présumé de bons résultats en psychothérapie, était significativement plus élevée dans le groupe de la TCC au départ. Elle s'est révélée être un bon modérateur de l'efficacité du traitement dans les deux traitements. Après correction des scores initiaux à l'échelle des niveaux de conscience émotionnelle (LEAS), l'ampleur de l'effet (AE) des premiers résultats était d de Cohen = 1,28, d'avant à après traitement, et d = 1,03, d'avant le traitement au suivi, pour la PPAP, et d = 1,81 et 1,28 pour la TCC, respectivement. Conclusions : La PPAP a été mise en œuvre efficacement dans la pratique clinique par des psychanalystes de la communauté dans un échantillon souffrant de grave maladie mentale et présentant de larges AE. L'évaluation par la LEAS peut faciliter l'identification des patients à qui la psychothérapie à court terme convient. (Numéro d'enregistrement d'essai clinique : German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS00000245; Universal Trial Number, U1111­1112­4245).

Patients' psychological well-being and resilient coping protect from secondary somatoform vertigo and dizziness (SVD) 1 year after vestibular disease.

Secondary somatoform dizziness and vertigo (SVD) is an underdiagnosed and handicapping psychosomatic disorder, leading to extensive utilization of health care and maladaptive coping. Few long-term follow-up studies have focused on the assessment of risk factors and little is known about protective factors. The aim of this 1-year follow-up study was to identify neurootological patients at risk for the development of secondary SVD with respect to individual psychopathological disposition, subjective well-being and resilient coping. In a prospective interdisciplinary study, we assessed mental disorders in n=59 patients with peripheral and central vestibular disorders (n=15 benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, n=15 vestibular neuritis, n=8 Menière's disease, n=24 vestibular migraine) at baseline (T0) and 1 year after admission (T1). Psychosomatic examinations included the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV, the Vertigo Symptom Scale (VSS), and a psychometric test battery measuring resilience (RS), sense of coherence (SOC), and satisfaction with life (SWLS). Subjective well-being significantly predicted the development of secondary SVD: Patients with higher scores of RS, SOC, and SWLS at T0 were less likely to acquire secondary SVD at T1. Lifetime mental disorders correlated with a reduced subjective well-being at T0. Patients with mental comorbidity at T0 were generally more at risk for developing secondary SVD at T1. Patients' dispositional psychopathology and subjective well-being play a major predictive role for the long-term prognosis of dizziness and vertigo. To prevent secondary SVD, patients should be screened for risk and preventive factors, and offered psychotherapeutic treatment in case of insufficient coping capacity.

Psychiatric morbidity and comorbidity in different vestibular vertigo syndromes. Results of a prospective longitudinal study over one year.

OBJECTIVES: High rates of coexisting vestibular deficits and psychiatric disorders have been reported in patients with vertigo. Hence, a causal linkage between the vestibular system and emotion processing systems has been postulated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of vestibular function and vestibular deficits as well as preexisting psychiatric pathologies on the course of vestibular vertigo syndromes over 1 year. METHODS: This interdisciplinary prospective longitudinal study included a total of 68 patients with vestibular vertigo syndromes. Four subgroups were compared: benign paroxysmal positioning vertigo (BPPV, n=19), vestibular neuritis (VN, n=14), vestibular migraine (VM, n=27), and Menière's disease (MD, n=8). All patients underwent neurological and detailed neurootological examinations as well as two standardized interviews and a psychometric examination battery at five different times (T0-T4) over 1 year. RESULTS: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders at baseline (T0) did not differ between the four subgroups. Only patients with VM showed significantly higher rates of psychiatric disorders (p=0.044) in the follow-up over 1 year. Patients with a positive history of psychiatric disorders before the onset of the vestibular disorder had significantly increased rates of psychiatric disorders compared to patients with a negative history of psychiatric disorders (T1: p=0.004, T3: p=0.015, T4: p=0.012). The extent of vestibular deficit or dysfunction did not have any influence on the further course of the vestibular disease with respect to the development of psychiatric disorders. CONCLUSION: A positive history of psychiatric disorders is a strong predictor for the development of reactive psychiatric disorders following a vestibular vertigo syndrome. Especially patients with vestibular migraine are at risk of developing somatoform dizziness. The degree of vestibular dysfunction does not correlate with the development of psychiatric disorders.

Why do subjective vertigo and dizziness persist over one year after a vestibular vertigo syndrome?

The overlap and interlinkage of dizzy symptoms in patients with psychiatric and vestibular vertigo/dizziness disorders is the subject of an ongoing debate. In a one-year follow up in 68 patients with vestibular vertigo syndromes, the persistency of vertigo and dizziness symptoms was examined and correlated with vestibular parameters and results from a psychiatric evaluation. Patients with vestibular migraine showed poorest improvement of vertigo and dizziness symptoms over time. In addition, patients who developed anxiety or depressive disorder after the onset of the vestibular disorder showed poor improvement and high persistency of symptoms.

Dizziness: anxiety, health care utilization and health behavior--results from a representative German community survey.

BACKGROUND: Due to the lack of epidemiological data on the relation of dizziness and anxiety, we investigated the prevalence of dizziness and anxiety in a representative sample of the German population. We explored the consequences of comorbid anxiety for emotional distress, functional impairment, health care utilization, and health behavior in dizziness. METHODS: By the end of 2006, we surveyed a total of 1287 persons between 14 and 90 years of age in their homes by trained interviewers with standardized self-rating questionnaires on anxiety (Patient Health Questionnaire, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale, Mini-Social Phobia Inventory) and dizziness (Vertigo Symptom Scale). The sample was representative for the German population in terms of age, sex, and education. RESULTS: Symptoms of dizziness were reported by 15.8% of the participants. Of the participants with dizziness, 28.3% reported symptoms of at least one anxiety disorder (generalized anxiety, social phobia, panic). Persons with dizziness reported more somatic problems such as hypertension, migraine, diabetes, etc. Comorbid anxiety was associated with increased health care use and impairment. CONCLUSION: Dizziness is a highly prevalent symptom in the general population. A subgroup with comorbid anxiety is characterized by an increased subjective impairment and health care utilization due to their dizziness. Because treatment options for distinct neurotologic disorders are also known to reduce psychological symptoms, and in order to avoid unnecessary medical treatment, early neurologic and psychiatric/psychotherapeutic referral may be indicated.