[18F]mFBG PET-CT for detection and localisation of neuroblastoma: a prospective pilot study.

PURPOSE: Meta-[18F]fluorobenzylguanidine ([18F]mFBG) is a positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer that allows for fast and high-resolution imaging of tumours expressing the norepinephrine transporter. This pilot study investigates the feasibility of [18F]mFBG PET-CT for imaging in neuroblastoma. METHODS: In a prospective, single-centre study, we recruited children with neuroblastoma, referred for meta-[123I]iodobenzylguanidine ([123I]mIBG) scanning, consisting of total body planar scintigraphy in combination with single-photon emission computed tomography-CT (SPECT-CT). Within two weeks of [123I]mIBG scanning, total body PET-CTs were performed at 1 h and 2 h after injection of [18F]mFBG (2 MBq/kg). Detected tumour localisations on scan pairs were compared. Soft tissue disease was quantified by number of lesions and skeletal disease by SIOPEN score. RESULTS: Twenty paired [123I]mIBG and [18F]mFBG scans were performed in 14 patients (median age 4.9 years, n = 13 stage 4 disease and n = 1 stage 4S). [18F]mFBG injection was well tolerated and no related adverse events occurred in any of the patients. Mean scan time for [18F]mFBG PET-CT (9.0 min, SD 1.9) was significantly shorter than for [123I]mIBG scanning (84.5 min, SD 10.5), p < 0.01. Most tumour localisations were detected on the 1 h versus 2 h post-injection [18F]mFBG PET-CT. Compared to [123I]mIBG scanning, [18F]mFBG PET-CT detected a higher, equal, and lower number of soft tissue lesions in 40%, 55%, and 5% of scan pairs, respectively, and a higher, equal, and lower SIOPEN score in 55%, 30%, and 15% of scan pairs, respectively. On average, two more soft tissue lesions and a 6-point higher SIOPEN score were detected per patient on [18F]mFBG PET-CT compared to [123I]mIBG scanning. CONCLUSION: Results of this study demonstrate feasibility of [18F]mFBG PET-CT for neuroblastoma imaging. More neuroblastoma localisations were detected on [18F]mFBG PET-CT compared to [123I]mIBG scanning. [18F]mFBG PET-CT shows promise for future staging and response assessment in neuroblastoma. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Dutch Trial Register NL8152.

Optimising urinary catecholamine metabolite diagnostics for neuroblastoma.

INTRODUCTION: The analysis of urinary catecholamine metabolites is a cornerstone of neuroblastoma diagnostics. Currently, there is no consensus regarding the sampling method, and variable combinations of catecholamine metabolites are being used. We investigated if spot urine samples can be reliably used for analysis of a panel of catecholamine metabolites for the diagnosis of neuroblastoma. METHODS: Twenty-four-hour urine or spot urine samples were collected from patients with and without neuroblastoma at diagnosis. Homovanillic acid (HVA), vanillylmandelic acid (VMA), dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, norepinephrine, normetanephrine, epinephrine and metanephrine were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD) and/or ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). RESULTS: Catecholamine metabolite levels were measured in urine samples of 400 neuroblastoma patients (24-hour urine, n = 234; spot urine, n = 166) and 571 controls (all spot urine). Excretion levels of catecholamine metabolites and the diagnostic sensitivity for each metabolite were similar in 24-hour urine and spot urine samples (p > .08 and >.27 for all metabolites). The area under the receiver-operating-characteristic curve (AUC) of the panel containing all eight catecholamine metabolites was significantly higher compared to that of only HVA and VMA (AUC = 0.952 vs. 0.920, p = .02). No differences were observed in metabolite levels between the two analysis methods. CONCLUSION: Catecholamine metabolites in spot urine and 24-hour urine resulted in similar diagnostic sensitivities. The Catecholamine Working Group recommends the implementation of spot urine as standard of care. The panel of eight catecholamine metabolites has superior diagnostic accuracy over VMA and HVA.

Mutational spectrum of ATRX aberrations in neuroblastoma and associated patient and tumor characteristics.

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumor in children. The chromatin remodeler ATRX is frequently mutated in high-risk patients with a poor prognosis. Although many studies have reported ATRX aberrations and the associated clinical characteristics in neuroblastoma, a comprehensive overview is currently lacking. In this study, we extensively characterize the mutational spectrum of ATRX aberrations in neuroblastoma tumors reported in previous studies and present an overview of patient and tumor characteristics. We collected the data of a total of 127 neuroblastoma patients and three cell lines with ATRX aberrations originating from 20 papers. We subdivide the ATRX aberrations into nonsense, missense, and multiexon deletions (MEDs) and show that 68% of them are MEDs. Of these MEDs, 75% are predicted to be in-frame. Furthermore, we identify a missense mutational hotspot region in the helicase domain. We also confirm that all three ATRX mutation types are more often identified in patients diagnosed at an older age, but still approximately 40% of the patients are aged 5 years or younger at diagnosis. Surprisingly, we found that 11q deletions are enriched in neuroblastomas with ATRX deletions compared to a reference cohort, but not in neuroblastomas with ATRX point mutations. Taken together, our data emphasizes a distinct ATRX mutation spectrum in neuroblastoma, which should be considered when studying molecular phenotypes and therapeutic strategies.

Refractory Stage M Ganglioneuroblastoma With Bone Metastases and a Favorable, Chronic Course of Disease: Description of a Patient Cohort.

Refractory stage M neuroblastoma (NB) is associated with a poor prognosis and a progressive course of disease. Here, we describe a unique group of patients with a discrepant clinical course. Seven histologically confirmed ganglioneuroblastoma (GNB) (n=6) and differentiating NB (n=1) patients were identified who were diagnosed with stage M disease based on iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine avid bone metastases. Six patients started on high-risk treatment, without tumor response (stable disease). Treatment was discontinued before the start of consolidation treatment because of refractory response in all patients. Unexpectedly, after cessation of treatment no progression of disease occurred. In 2 patients, the primary tumors expanded (>25%) very slowly during 1.5 and 3 years, and remained stable thereafter. Metabolically, a slow decrease of urinary homovanillic acid and vanillylmandelic acid levels and iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine avidity was observed. All patients are alive with presence of metastatic disease after a median follow-up of 17 years (range: 6.7 to 27 y). Interestingly, at diagnosis, 6 patients were asymptomatic, 6 patients had GNB morphology, and 5 patients had meningeal metastases. These are all features seen in only a small minority of stage M patients. This GNB entity illustrates the clinical heterogeneity of neuroblastic tumors and can be used to further study the developmental origin of different NB subtypes.

Characteristics and outcome of pediatric renal cell carcinoma patients registered in the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP) 93-01, 2001 and UK-IMPORT database: A report of the SIOP-Renal Tumor Study Group.

In children, renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is rare. This study is the first report of pediatric patients with RCC registered by the International Society of Pediatric Oncology-Renal Tumor Study Group (SIOP-RTSG). Pediatric patients with histologically confirmed RCC, registered in SIOP 93-01, 2001 and UK-IMPORT databases, were included. Event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method. Between 1993 and 2019, 122 pediatric patients with RCC were registered. Available detailed data (n = 111) revealed 56 localized, 30 regionally advanced, 25 metastatic and no bilateral cases. Histological classification according to World Health Organization 2004, including immunohistochemical and molecular testing for transcription factor E3 (TFE3) and/or EB (TFEB) translocation, was available for 65/122 patients. In this group, the most common histological subtypes were translocation type RCC (MiT-RCC) (36/64, 56.3%), papillary type (19/64, 29.7%) and clear cell type (4/64, 6.3%). One histological subtype was not reported. In the remaining 57 patients, translocation testing could not be performed, or TFE-cytogenetics and/or immunohistochemistry results were missing. In this group, the most common RCC histological subtypes were papillary type (21/47, 44.7%) and clear cell type (11/47, 23.4%). Ten histological subtypes were not reported. Estimated 5-year (5y) EFS and 5y OS of the total group was 70.5% (95% CI = 61.7%-80.6%) and 84.5% (95% CI = 77.5%-92.2%), respectively. Estimated 5y OS for localized, regionally advanced, and metastatic disease was 96.8%, 92.3%, and 45.6%, respectively. In conclusion, the registered pediatric patients with RCC showed a reasonable outcome. Survival was substantially lower for patients with metastatic disease. This descriptive study stresses the importance of full, prospective registration including TFE-testing.

Use of quality indicators in neuroblastoma treatment: A feasibility assessment.

BACKGROUND: Quality indicators (QIs) may be used to monitor the quality of neuroblastoma (NBL) care during treatment, in addition to survival and treatment toxicity, which can only be evaluated in the years after treatment. The present study aimed to assess the feasibility of a new set of indicators for the quality of NBL therapy. PROCEDURE: Seven QIs have been proposed based on literature and consensus of experts: (a) duration of complete diagnostic work-up, (b) prescription of thyroid prophylaxis before metaiodobenzylguanidine imaging, (c) treatment intensity, (d) use of tumor board meetings, (e) number of outpatient visits and sedation procedures during follow-up, (f) protocolled follow-up, and (g) required apheresis sessions. A retrospective data analysis from October 2014 to November 2017 including all patients with NBL in the centralized Princess Máxima Center in the Netherlands was performed to assess these parameters and determine practicality of measurement. RESULTS: A total number of 72 patients (aged between 2 weeks and 15 years) were analyzed. Adherence to all QIs could be determined for all eligible patients using their electronic medical records. Three indicators were compared over time, and an increase in adherence was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Assessment of QIs in neuroblastoma treatment is feasible. Seven new QIs were found to be feasible to measure and showed improvement over time for three indicators. Monitoring of these QIs during treatment may provide tools for quality improvement activities and comparisons of treatment quality over time or between centers. Further study is required to investigate their association with long-term outcomes.

Neuroblastoma stage 4S: Tumor regression rate and risk factors of progressive disease.

BACKGROUND: The clinical course of neuroblastoma stage 4S or MS is characterized by a high rate of spontaneous tumor regression and favorable outcome. However, the clinical course and rate of the regression are poorly understood. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed, including all patients with stage 4S neuroblastoma without MYCN amplification, from two Dutch centers between 1972 and 2012. We investigated the clinical characteristics, the biochemical activity reflected in urinary catecholamine excretion, and radiological imaging to describe the kinetics of tumor regression, therapy response and outcome. RESULTS: The cohort of 31 patients reached a 10-year overall survival of 84% ± 7% (median follow-up 16 years; range, 3.3-39). During the regressive phase, liver size normalized in 91% of the patients and catecholamine excretion in 83%, both after a median of two months (liver size: range, 0-131; catecholamines: range, 0-158). The primary tumors completely regressed in 69% after 13 months (range, 6-73), and the liver architecture normalized in 52% after 15 months (range, 5-131). Antitumor treatment was given in 52% of the patients. Interestingly, regression rates were similar for treated and untreated patients. Four of seven patients < 4 weeks old died of rapid liver expansion and organ compression. Three patients progressed to stage 4, 3 to 13 months after diagnosis; all had persistently elevated catecholamines. CONCLUSION: Patients < 4 weeks old with neuroblastoma stage 4S are at risk of fatal outcome caused by progression of liver metastases. In other patients, tumor regression is characterized by a rapid biochemical normalization that precedes radiological regression.

Correction to: The pitfalls and promise of liquid biopsies for diagnosing and treating solid tumors in children: as review.

In the original version of this article, a reader pointed out that there was a mistake in the phrasing in a paragraph. This could potentially be harmful to children. The authors agree to change the wording. "vitreous fluid" will be changed to "aqueous humor".

The pitfalls and promise of liquid biopsies for diagnosing and treating solid tumors in children: a review.

Cell-free DNA profiling using patient blood is emerging as a non-invasive complementary technique for cancer genomic characterization. Since these liquid biopsies will soon be integrated into clinical trial protocols for pediatric cancer treatment, clinicians should be informed about potential applications and advantages but also weaknesses and potential pitfalls. Small retrospective studies comparing genetic alterations detected in liquid biopsies with tumor biopsies for pediatric solid tumor types are encouraging. Molecular detection of tumor markers in cell-free DNA could be used for earlier therapy response monitoring and residual disease detection as well as enabling detection of pathognomonic and therapeutically relevant genomic alterations.Conclusion: Existing analyses of liquid biopsies from children with solid tumors increasingly suggest a potential relevance for molecular diagnostics, prognostic assessment, and therapeutic decision-making. Gaps remain in the types of tumors studied and value of detection methods applied. Here we review the current stand of liquid biopsy studies for pediatric solid tumors with a dedicated focus on cell-free DNA analysis. There is legitimate hope that integrating fully validated liquid biopsy-based innovations into the standard of care will advance patient monitoring and personalized treatment of children battling solid cancers.What is Known:• Liquid biopsies are finding their way into routine oncological screening, diagnosis, and disease monitoring in adult cancer types fast.• The most widely adopted source for liquid biopsies is blood although other easily accessible body fluids, such as saliva, pleural effusions, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can also serve as sources for liquid biopsiesWhat is New:• Retrospective proof-of-concept studies in small cohorts illustrate that liquid biopsies in pediatric solid tumors yield tremendous potential to be used in diagnostics, for therapy response monitoring and in residual disease detection.• Liquid biopsy diagnostics could tackle some long-standing issues in the pediatric oncology field; they can enable accurate genetic diagnostics in previously unbiopsied tumor types like renal tumors or brain stem tumors leading to better treatment strategies.

Prospective investigation of applicability and the prognostic significance of bone marrow involvement in patients with neuroblastoma detected by quantitative reverse transcription PCR.

BACKGROUND: Detection of bone marrow (BM) involvement in patients with neuroblastoma is crucial for staging and defining prognosis. Furthermore, the persistence of residual tumor cells in the BM is associated with an unfavorable outcome. METHODS: Expression of PHOX2B, TH, ELAVL4, and B4GALNT1 (GD2-synthase) was analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in neuroblastoma cell lines, control BM samples, and in BM samples from patients. The threshold level of expression for each gene was established through receiver operator characteristic analysis and used to determine the diagnostic test performance. The prognostic significance of BM involvement was assessed by survival rates calculations. The median of follow-up time was 36.1 months. RESULTS: Neither PHOX2B nor TH expression was detected in control BM, while expression of ELAVL4 was found in 20 (76.9%) and GD2-synthase in 15 (57.7%) of 26 samples. The overall correct predictive value for TH, ELAVL4, and GD2-synthase, based on thresholds levels, was 0.952, 0.828, and 0.767, respectively, whereas the overall correct predictive value for PHOX2B was 0.994. The PHOX2B/TH expression in diagnostic BM of patients with neuroblastoma corresponded with a decreased survival rate (P < 0.001) in the total cohort and in different risk groups. Predominance of normalized expression of PHOX2B over TH > 1.68 in the diagnostic BM samples demonstrated an adverse prognostic effect (P = 0.006). Persistence of PHOX2B/TH expression in the BM during and after induction chemotherapy resulted in dismal outcome (P = 0.022 and P = 0.012). CONCLUSION: PHOX2B and TH are the most optimal markers for detection of BM involvement, allowing identification of high-risk patients. Predominance of PHOX2B expression over TH has a strong adverse prognostic impact.

Recommendations for the standardization of bone marrow disease assessment and reporting in children with neuroblastoma on behalf of the International Neuroblastoma Response Criteria Bone Marrow Working Group.

BACKGROUND: The current study was conducted to expedite international standardized reporting of bone marrow disease in children with neuroblastoma and to improve equivalence of care. METHODS: A multidisciplinary International Neuroblastoma Response Criteria Bone Marrow Working Group was convened by the US National Cancer Institute in January 2012 with representation from Europe, North America, and Australia. Practical transferable recommendations to standardize the reporting of bone marrow disease were developed. RESULTS: To the authors' knowledge, the current study is the first to comprehensively present consensus criteria for the collection, analysis, and reporting of the percentage area of bone marrow parenchyma occupied by tumor cells in trephine-biopsies. The quantitative analysis of neuroblastoma content in bone marrow aspirates by immunocytology and reverse transcriptase-quantitative polymerase chain reaction are revised. The inclusion of paired-like homeobox 2b (PHOX2B) for immunohistochemistry and reverse transcriptase-quantitative polymerase chain reaction is recommended. Recommendations for recording bone marrow response are provided. The authors endorse the quantitative assessment of neuroblastoma cell content in bilateral core needle biopsies-trephines and aspirates in all children with neuroblastoma, with the exception of infants, in whom the evaluation of aspirates alone is advised. It is interesting to note that 5% disease is accepted as an internationally achievable level for disease assessment. CONCLUSIONS: The quantitative assessment of neuroblastoma cells is recommended to provide data from which evidence-based numerical criteria for the reporting of bone marrow response can be realized. This is particularly important in the minimal disease setting and when neuroblastoma detection in bone marrow is intermittent, where clinical impact has yet to be validated. The wide adoption of these harmonized criteria will enhance the ability to compare outcomes from different trials and facilitate collaborative trial design. Cancer 2017;123:1095-1105. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

MIBG scans in patients with stage 4 neuroblastoma reveal two metastatic patterns, one is associated with MYCN amplification and in MYCN-amplified tumours correlates with a better prognosis.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to find clinically relevant MIBG-avid metastatic patterns in patients with newly diagnosed stage 4 neuroblastoma. METHODS: Diagnostic (123)I-MIBG scans from 249 patients (123 from a European and 126 from the COG cohort) were assessed for metastatic spread in 14 body segments and the form of the lesions: "focal" (clear margins distinguishable from adjacent background) or "diffuse" (indistinct margins, dispersed throughout the body segment). The total numbers of diffuse and focal lesions were recorded. Patients were then categorized as having lesions exclusively focal, lesions more focal than diffuse, lesions more diffuse than focal, or lesions exclusively diffuse. RESULTS: Diffuse lesions affected a median of seven body segments and focal lesions a median of two body segments (P < 0.001, both cohorts). Patients with a focal pattern had a median of 2 affected body segments and those with a diffuse pattern a median of 11 affected body segments (P < 0.001, both cohorts). Thus, two MIBG-avid metastatic patterns emerged: "limited-focal" and "extensive-diffuse". The median numbers of affected body segments in MYCN-amplified (MNA) tumours were 5 (European cohort) and 4 (COG cohort) compared to 9 and 11, respectively, in single-copy MYCN (MYCNsc) tumours (P < 0.001). Patients with exclusively focal metastases were more likely to have a MNA tumour (60% and 70%, respectively) than patients with the other types of metastases (23% and 28%, respectively; P < 0.001). In a multivariate Cox regression analysis, focal metastases were associated with a better event-free and overall survival than the other types of metastases in patients with MNA tumours in the COG cohort (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Two metastatic patterns were found: a "limited and focal" pattern found mainly in patients with MNA neuroblastoma that correlated with prognosis, and an "extensive and diffuse" pattern found mainly in patients with MYCNsc neuroblastoma.

Upfront treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma with a combination of 131I-MIBG and topotecan.

BACKGROUND: (131)I-metaiodobenzylguanidine ((131) I-MIBG) has a significant anti-tumor effect against neuroblastoma (NBL). Topotecan (TPT) can act as a radio-sensitizer and can up-regulate (131) I-MIBG uptake in vitro in NBL. AIM: Determine the efficacy of the combination of (131) I-MIBG with topotecan in newly diagnosed high-risk (HR) NBL patients. METHODS: In a prospective, window phase II study, patients with newly diagnosed high-risk neuroblastoma were treated at diagnosis with two courses of (131) I-MIBG directly followed by topotecan (0.7 mg/m(2) for 5 days). After these two courses, standard induction treatment (four courses of VECI), surgery and myeloablative therapy (MAT) with autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) was given. Response was measured after two courses of (131) I-MIBG-topotecan and post MAT and ASCT. Hematologic toxicity and harvesting of stem cells were analysed. Topoisomerase-1 activity levels were analysed in primary tumor material. RESULTS: Sixteen patients were included in the study; median age was 2.8 years. MIBG administered activity (AA) (median and range) of the first course was 0.5 (0.4-0.6) GBq/kg (giga Becquerel/kilogram) and of the second course 0.4 (0.3-0.5) GBq/kg. The overall objective response rate (ORR) after 2 × MIBG/TPT was 57%, the primary tumor RR was 94%, and bone marrow RR was 43%. The ORR post MAT and ASCT was 57%. Hematologic grade four toxicity: after first and second (131) I-MIBG (platelets 25/33%, neutrophils 13/33%, and hemoglobin 25/7%). Topoisomerase-1 activity levels were increased in 10/10 (100%) measured tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Combination therapy with MIBG-topotecan is an effective window treatment in newly diagnosed high-risk neuroblastoma patients.

Minimal residual disease detection in autologous stem cell grafts from patients with high risk neuroblastoma.

BACKGROUND: The clinical significance of minimal residual disease (MRD) detected by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) in autologous stem cell grafts in high risk neuroblastoma is still controversial. In this retrospective multicenter study, autologous stem cell grafts of a large cohort were studied using a panel of RNA markers. PROCEDURE: From 104 patients with high risk neuroblastoma, who received autologous stem cell transplantation as first line treatment, 66 peripheral blood stem cells (PBSC) and 38 CD34+ selected grafts were retrospectively collected at 2 Dutch and 12 German centers between 1997 and 2010. To investigate graft contamination qPCR was performed by using 5 neuroblastoma specific markers (PHOX2B, TH, DDC, CHRNA3, and DBH). RESULTS: In PBSC 6/66 (9%) and in CD34+ selected grafts 3/38 (8%) samples were contaminated. Graft contamination was not associated with an unfavorable outcome (5-years OS, 66% vs. 50.5%; P=0.6 and 5-years EFS, 22% vs. 35%, P=0.7). In multivariate Cox analysis BM MRD at time of harvest was significantly associated with survival (P=0.008 OS and P=0.002 EFS), but graft contamination was still not associated with an unfavorable outcome (P=0.9 OS and P=1 EFS). CONCLUSIONS: Graft contamination is very infrequent in this retrospective cohort of patients with no or minimal BM disease prior to stem cell collection and does not influence outcome in univariate and multivariate analysis. The presence of MRD at time of harvest is a strong outcome predictor. However, these results will have to be verified in a large prospective study.

123I-MIBG scintigraphy and 18F-FDG-PET imaging for diagnosing neuroblastoma.

BACKGROUND: Neuroblastoma is an embryonic tumour of childhood that originates in the neural crest. It is the second most common extracranial malignant solid tumour of childhood.Neuroblastoma cells have the unique capacity to accumulate Iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine (¹²³I-MIBG), which can be used for imaging the tumour. Moreover, ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy is not only important for the diagnosis of neuroblastoma, but also for staging and localization of skeletal lesions. If these are present, MIBG follow-up scans are used to assess the patient's response to therapy. However, the sensitivity and specificity of ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy to detect neuroblastoma varies according to the literature.Prognosis, treatment and response to therapy of patients with neuroblastoma are currently based on extension scoring of ¹²³I-MIBG scans. Due to its clinical use and importance, it is necessary to determine the exact diagnostic accuracy of ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy. In case the tumour is not MIBG avid, fluorine-18-fluorodeoxy-glucose ((18)F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) is often used and the diagnostic accuracy of this test should also be assessed. PRIMARY OBJECTIVES: 1.1 To determine the diagnostic accuracy of ¹²³I-MIBG (single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), with or without computed tomography (CT)) scintigraphy for detecting a neuroblastoma and its metastases at first diagnosis or at recurrence in children from 0 to 18 years old.1.2 To determine the diagnostic accuracy of negative ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy in combination with (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging for detecting a neuroblastoma and its metastases at first diagnosis or at recurrence in children from 0 to 18 years old, i.e. an add-on test. SECONDARY OBJECTIVES: 2.1 To determine the diagnostic accuracy of (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging for detecting a neuroblastoma and its metastases at first diagnosis or at recurrence in children from 0 to 18 years old.2.2 To compare the diagnostic accuracy of ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) and (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging for detecting a neuroblastoma and its metastases at first diagnosis or at recurrence in children from 0 to 18 years old. This was performed within and between included studies. ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) scintigraphy was the comparator test in this case. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the databases of MEDLINE/PubMed (1945 to 11 September 2012) and EMBASE/Ovid (1980 to 11 September 2012) for potentially relevant articles. Also we checked the reference lists of relevant articles and review articles, scanned conference proceedings and searched for unpublished studies by contacting researchers involved in this area. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included studies of a cross-sectional design or cases series of proven neuroblastoma, either retrospective or prospective, if they compared the results of ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) scintigraphy or (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging, or both, with the reference standards or with each other. Studies had to be primary diagnostic and report on children aged between 0 to 18 years old with a neuroblastoma of any stage at first diagnosis or at recurrence. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: One review author performed the initial screening of identified references. Two review authors independently performed the study selection, extracted data and assessed the methodological quality.We used data from two-by-two tables, describing at least the number of patients with a true positive test and the number of patients with a false negative test, to calculate the sensitivity, and if possible, the specificity for each included study.If possible, we generated forest plots showing estimates of sensitivity and specificity together with 95% confidence intervals. MAIN RESULTS: Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Ten studies reported data on patient level: the scan was positive or negative. One study reported on all single lesions (lesion level). The sensitivity of ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) scintigraphy (objective 1.1), determined in 608 of 621 eligible patients included in the 11 studies, varied from 67% to 100%. One study, that reported on a lesion level, provided data to calculate the specificity: 68% in 115 lesions in 22 patients. The sensitivity of ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy for detecting metastases separately from the primary tumour in patients with all neuroblastoma stages ranged from 79% to 100% in three studies and the specificity ranged from 33% to 89% for two of these studies.One study reported on the diagnostic accuracy of (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging (add-on test) in patients with negative ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy (objective 1.2). Two of the 24 eligible patients with proven neuroblastoma had a negative ¹²³I-MIBG scan and a positive (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) scan.The sensitivity of (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging as a single diagnostic test (objective 2.1) and compared to ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) (objective 2.2) was only reported in one study. The sensitivity of (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging was 100% versus 92% of ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) scintigraphy. We could not calculate the specificity for both modalities. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The reported sensitivities of ¹²³-I MIBG scintigraphy for the detection of neuroblastoma and its metastases ranged from 67 to 100% in patients with histologically proven neuroblastoma.Only one study in this review reported on false positive findings. It is important to keep in mind that false positive findings can occur. For example, physiological uptake should be ruled out, by using SPECT-CT scans, although more research is needed before definitive conclusions can be made.As described both in the literature and in this review, in about 10% of the patients with histologically proven neuroblastoma the tumour does not accumulate ¹²³I-MIBG (false negative results). For these patients, it is advisable to perform an additional test for staging and assess response to therapy. Additional tests might for example be (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT), but to be certain of its clinical value, more evidence is needed.The diagnostic accuracy of (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging in case of a negative ¹²³I-MIBG scintigraphy could not be calculated, because only very limited data were available. Also the detection of the diagnostic accuracy of index test (18)F-FDG-PET(-CT) imaging for detecting a neuroblastoma tumour and its metastases, and to compare this to comparator test ¹²³I-MIBG (SPECT-CT) scintigraphy, could not be calculated because of the limited available data at time of this search.At the start of this project, we did not expect to find only very limited data on specificity. We now consider it would have been more appropriate to use the term "the sensitivity to assess the presence of neuroblastoma" instead of "diagnostic accuracy" for the objectives.

Integrative analysis of neuroblastoma by single-cell RNA sequencing identifies the NECTIN2-TIGIT axis as a target for immunotherapy.

Pediatric patients with high-risk neuroblastoma have poor survival rates and urgently need more effective treatment options with less side effects. Since novel and improved immunotherapies may fill this need, we dissect the immunoregulatory interactions in neuroblastoma by single-cell RNA-sequencing of 24 tumors (10 pre- and 14 post-chemotherapy, including 5 pairs) to identify strategies for optimizing immunotherapy efficacy. Neuroblastomas are infiltrated by natural killer (NK), T and B cells, and immunosuppressive myeloid populations. NK cells show reduced cytotoxicity and T cells have a dysfunctional profile. Interaction analysis reveals a vast immunoregulatory network and identifies NECTIN2-TIGIT as a crucial immune checkpoint. Combined blockade of TIGIT and PD-L1 significantly reduces neuroblastoma growth, with complete responses (CR) in vivo. Moreover, addition of TIGIT+PD-L1 blockade to standard relapse treatment in a chemotherapy-resistant Th-ALKF1174L/MYCN 129/SvJ syngeneic model induces CR. In conclusion, our integrative analysis provides promising targets and a rationale for immunotherapeutic combination strategies.

The role of 131I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) therapy in unresectable and compromising localised neuroblastoma.

PURPOSE: In patients with localised neuroblastoma without adverse genetic aberrations, observational treatment is justified. Therapy is required when organ or respiratory functions have become compromised. As the outcome is good, side effects of treatment should be prevented. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate response and outcome in patients treated with (131)I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) for unresectable localised neuroblastoma, with compromised organ functions. METHODS: Patients with localised neuroblastoma [median age 1.6 years (0-5.5 years)] diagnosed between 1989 and 2008 were included in this retrospective study (n = 21). Primary tumours were unresectable and there was a compromised organ or respiratory function. Diagnosis and staging were performed according to the International Neuroblastoma Staging System. Fixed doses of (131)I-MIBG therapy (50-200 mCi) were given. The median number of infusions was two (range one to seven). Response was graded according to the International Neuroblastoma Response Criteria. RESULTS: Of the 21 patients, 14 did not need any chemotherapy. Patients were treated with (131)I-MIBG therapy and, in most cases, with additional surgery and/or chemotherapy. Sixteen achieved complete response (CR), three very good partial response (VGPR), one partial response (PR) and one progressive disease (PD). Two patients died of PD after having achieved CR initially and due to surgical complications a few months after resection. Ten-year overall survival and event-free survival were 90.5 %. The median follow-up was 8.5 years (range 0.4-19.6 years). CONCLUSION: (131)I-MIBG therapy is an effective treatment modality for unresectable localised neuroblastoma with compromised organ functions. However, this was a small and heterogeneous cohort and further studies are needed.

Toxicity of upfront ¹³¹I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (¹³¹I-MIBG) therapy in newly diagnosed neuroblastoma patients: a retrospective analysis.

PURPOSE: In the treatment of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma, different doses of (131)I-metaiodobenzylguanidine ((131)I-MIBG) are administered at different time points during treatment. Toxicity, mainly haematological (thrombocytopenia), from (131)I-MIBG therapy is known to occur in extensively chemotherapy pretreated neuroblastoma patients. Up to now, acute toxicity from (131)I-MIBG as initial treatment has never been studied in a large cohort. The aim of this retrospective study was to document acute toxicity related to upfront (131)I-MIBG. METHODS: All neuroblastoma patients (stages 1-4 and 4S) treated upfront with (131)I-MIBG at the Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Centre (1992 - 2008) were included in this retrospective analysis. The acute toxicity (during therapy) and short-term toxicity (1st month following therapy) of the first two (131)I-MIBG therapies were studied. RESULTS: Of 66 patients (34 boys, 32 girls; median age 2.2 years, range 0.1 - 9.4 years), 49 had stage 4 disease, 5 stage 4S, 6 stage 3, 1 stage 2 and 5 stage 1. The median first dose was 441 MBq/kg (range 157 - 804 MBq/kg). The median second dose was 328 MBq/kg (range 113 - 727 MBq/kg). The most frequently observed symptoms were nausea and vomiting (21 %, maximum grade II). The main toxicity was grade IV haematological, occurring only in stage 4 patients, after the first and second (131)I-MIBG therapies: anaemia (5 % and 4 %, respectively), leucocytopenia (3 % and 4 %) and thrombocytopenia (2 % and 4 %). No stem cell rescue was needed. CONCLUSION: The main acute toxicity observed was haematological followed by nausea and vomiting. One patient developed posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome during (131)I-MIBG therapy, possibly related to (131)I-MIBG. We consider (131)I-MIBG therapy to be a safe treatment modality.

Cell-Free RNA from Plasma in Patients with Neuroblastoma: Exploring the Technical and Clinical Potential.

Neuroblastoma affects mostly young children, bearing a high morbidity and mortality. Liquid biopsies, e.g., molecular analysis of circulating tumor-derived nucleic acids in blood, offer a minimally invasive diagnostic modality. Cell-free RNA (cfRNA) is released by all cells, especially cancer. It circulates in blood packed in extracellular vesicles (EV) or attached to proteins. We studied the feasibility of analyzing cfRNA and EV, isolated by size exclusion chromatography (SEC), from platelet-poor plasma from healthy controls (n = 40) and neuroblastoma patients with localized (n = 10) and metastatic disease (n = 30). The mRNA content was determined using several multiplex droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assays for a neuroblastoma-specific gene panel (PHOX2B, TH, CHRNA3) and a cell cycle regulation panel (E2F1, CDC6, ATAD2, H2AFZ, MCM2, DHFR). We applied corrections for the presence of platelets. We demonstrated that neuroblastoma-specific markers were present in plasma from 14/30 patients with metastatic disease and not in healthy controls and patients with localized disease. Most cell cycle markers had a higher expression in patients. The mRNA markers were mostly present in the EV-enriched SEC fractions. In conclusion, cfRNA can be isolated from plasma and EV and analyzed using multiplex ddPCR. cfRNA is an interesting novel liquid biopsy-based target to explore further.