Early Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: An Update.

Hyperglycemia occurring in pregnancy is a growing burden worldwide. It is now standard of care to screen all women during pregnancy, both to detect preexisting diabetes as well as gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Traditionally, GDM was diagnosed at 24-28 weeks. However, with many international bodies recommending screening at first contact or booking, we are now diagnosing GDM earlier on in pregnancy. Based on the time of gestation at which it is diagnosed, GDM can be classified as conventional gestational diabetes mellitus (cGDM) or early gestational diabetes mellitus (eGDM). The cGDM is diagnosed between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation while eGDM is diagnosed in early pregnancy (<20 weeks). Till recently, there was little and conflicting evidence, on whether diagnosing and treating eGDM was beneficial or safe. The recent Treatment of BOoking Gestational diabetes Mellitus (ToBOGM) study, was a randomized control trial, showing clear benefits of diagnosing and treating eGDM. ToBOGM also showed that the best results were seen in those screened before 14 weeks of pregnancy and those in the higher band of glucose levels (FPG 95-109 mg/dL, 1-hour >191 mg/dL, and 2-hour glucose 162-199 mg/dL). In India, where the burden of hyperglycemia in pregnancy is high, the findings from the ToBOGM study further emphasize the need for screening for GDM at the time of first booking of the pregnancy followed by appropriate treatment for those detected to have eGDM. How to cite this article: Hannah W, Pradeepa R, Anjana RM, et al. Early Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: An Update. J Assoc Physicians India 2023;71(9):101-103.

Association of recently identified type 2 diabetes gene variants with Gestational Diabetes in Asian Indian population.

Earlier studies have provided evidence that the gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) share common genetic background. A recent genome wide association study (GWAS) showed a strong association of six novel gene variants with T2DM among south Asians but not with Europeans. The aim of this study was to investigate whether these variants that confer susceptibility to T2DM in Asian Indian population also correlate with GDM in Asian Indian population. In addition to these novel variants, three T2DM associated SNPs that were previously identified by GWAS in Caucasian populations, which also showed association with T2DM in south Indian population in our previous study were also evaluated for their susceptibility to GDM in our population. The study groups comprised unrelated pregnant women with GDM (n = 518) and pregnant women with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) (n = 1220). A total of nine SNPs in or near nine loci, namely AP3S2 (rs2028299), BAZ1B (rs12056034), CDKN2A/B (rs7020996), GRB14 (rs3923113), HHEX (rs7923837), HMG20A (rs7178572), HNF4A (rs4812829), ST6GAL1 (rs16861329) and VPS26A (rs1802295) were genotyped using the MassARRAY system. Among these nine SNPs that previously showed an association with T2DM in Asian Indians, HMG20A (rs7178572) and HNF4A (rs4812829) gene variants showed a significant association with GDM. The risk alleles of rs7178572 in HMG20A and rs4812829 in HNF4A gene conferred 1.24 and 1.28 times higher risk independently and about 1.44 and 1.97 times increased susceptibility to GDM for one and two risk genotypes, respectively. We report that the HMG20A (rs7178572) and HNF4A (rs4812829) variants that have previously shown a strong association with T2DM in Asian Indians also contributes significant risk to GDM in this population. This is the first report of the association of HMG20A (rs7178572) and HNF4A (rs4812829) variants with GDM.

Pregnancy outcome of gestational diabetes mellitus using a structured model of care : WINGS project (WINGS-10).

AIM: To evaluate the impact of a structured model of care (MOC) prepared for resource-constrained settings, on the pregnancy outcomes of Asian Indian women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). METHODS: Pregnant women were screened under the Women in India with GDM Strategy (WINGS) MOC for GDM using the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups criteria. Women with GDM went through a structured MOC that included medical nutrition therapy (MNT), regular physical activity (PA); and insulin when indicated. Fasting blood glucose and post-prandial blood sugar were monitored every 2 weeks. The pregnancy outcomes of women with GDM who underwent the MOC were compared with those without GDM. RESULTS: Under the MOC, 212 women with GDM were followed through pregnancy, of whom 33 (15.6%) required insulin and 179 (84.4%) were managed with MNT and PA. The maternal and neonatal outcomes of women with GDM were similar to the non-GDM women: there were no significant differences in pregnancy complications such as cesarean section, macrosomia, pre-eclampsia, oligo/polyhydramnios, preterm delivery, neonatal death, fetal distress, hyperbilirubinemia and low birthweight. CONCLUSION: Implementation of a structured MOC for women with GDM helped achieve pregnancy outcomes similar to those without GDM.

Correction: Prevalence of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus in south and southeast Asian women with history of gestational diabetes mellitus: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278919.].

Prevalence of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus in south and southeast Asian women with history of gestational diabetes mellitus: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The burden of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is very high in south Asia (SA) and southeast Asia (SEA). Thus, there is a need to understand the prevalence and risk factors for developing prediabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) postpartum, in this high-risk population. AIM: To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of prediabetes and T2DM among the women with history of GDM in SA and SEA. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search was performed in the following databases: Medline, EMBASE, Web of Knowledge and CINHAL till December 2021. Studies that had reported greater than six weeks of postpartum follow-up were included. The pooled prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes were estimated by random effects meta-analysis model and I2 statistic was used to assess heterogeneity. RESULTS: Meta-analysis of 13 studies revealed that the prevalence of prediabetes and T2DM in post-GDM women were 25.9% (95%CI 18.94 to 33.51) and 29.9% (95%CI 17.02 to 44.57) respectively. Women with history of GDM from SA and SEA seem to have higher risk of developing T2DM than women without GDM (RR 13.2, 95%CI 9.52 to 18.29, p<0.001). The subgroup analysis showed a rise in the prevalence of T2DM with increasing duration of follow-up. CONCLUSION: The conversion to T2DM and prediabetes is very high among women with history of GDM in SA and SEA. This highlights the need for follow-up of GDM women for early identification of dysglycemia and to plan interventions to prevent/delay the progression to T2DM.

Global burden of early pregnancy gestational diabetes mellitus (eGDM): A systematic review.

AIMS: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosed during the first trimester of pregnancy is called 'early pregnancy Gestational Diabetes Mellitus' (eGDM). The burden of eGDM has only been studied sporadically. This review aims to understand the global burden of eGDM in terms of prevalence, risk factors, pregnancy outcomes, treatment and postpartum dysglycemia.  METHODS: A review of epidemiologic studies reporting on early GDM screening as per Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for prevalence reviews was conducted. A customized search strategy was used to search electronic databases namely, PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, MEDLINE, Ovid, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Three independent reviewers reviewed studies using Covidence software. Observational studies irrespective of study design and regardless of diagnostic criteria were included. Quality of evidence was appraised, and findings were synthesized. RESULTS: Of 58 included studies, 41 reported a prevalence of eGDM, ranging from 0.7 to 36.8%. Body mass index (BMI), previous history of GDM, family history of diabetes and multiparity were reported as eGDM risk factors. Adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with eGDM were macrosomia, caesarean delivery, induction of labour, hypertension, preterm delivery, and shoulder dystocia. The incidence of postpartum dysglycemia and the need for insulin was higher in women with eGDM. The risk of bias was moderate. Heterogeneity of studies is a limitation. Meta-analysis was not performed. CONCLUSIONS: There is heterogeneity in the prevalence of eGDM and intrapartum and postpartum ill effects for the mother and the offspring. There is a need to develop a universal screening protocol for eGDM.

1,5 Anhydroglucitol in gestational diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: 1,5 Anhydroglucitol (1,5 AG) is reported to be a more sensitive marker of glucose variability and short-term glycemic control (1-2 weeks) in patients with type1 and type 2 diabetes. However, the role of 1,5 AG in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is not clear. We estimated the serum levels of 1,5 AG in pregnant women with and without GDM. METHODS: We recruited 220 pregnant women, 145 without and 75 with GDM visiting antenatal clinics in Tamil Nadu in South India. Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs) were carried out using 82.5 g oral glucose (equivalent to 75 g of anhydrous glucose) and GDM was diagnosed based on the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group criteria. Serum 1,5 AG levels were measured using an enzymatic, colorimetric assay kit (Glycomark®, New York, NY). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to identify 1,5 AG cut-off points to identify GDM. RESULTS: The mean levels of the 1,5 AG were significantly lower in women with GDM (11.8 ±â€¯5.7 µg/mL, p < 0.001) compared to women without GDM (16.2 ±â€¯6.2 µg/mL). In multiple logistic regression analysis, 1.5 AG showed a significant association with GDM (odds ratio [OR]: 0.876, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.812-0.944, p < 0.001) after adjusting for potential confounders. 1,5 AG had a C statistic of 0.693 compared to Fructosamine (0.671) and HbA1c (0.581) for identifying GDM. A 1,5 AG cut-off of 13.21 µg/mL had a C statistic of 0.6936 (95% CI: 0.6107-0.7583, p < 0.001), sensitivity of 67.6%, and specificity of 65.3% to identify GDM. CONCLUSION: 1,5AG levels are lower in pregnant women with GDM compared to individuals without GDM.

Elevated glycated hemoglobin predicts macrosomia among Asian Indian pregnant women (WINGS-9).

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the optimal glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) cut point for diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to evaluate the usefulness of HbA1c as a prognostic indicator for adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: HbA1c estimations were carried out in 1459 pregnant women attending antenatal care centers in urban and rural Tamil Nadu in South India. An oral glucose tolerance test was carried out using 75 g anhydrous glucose, and GDM was diagnosed using the International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups criteria. RESULTS: GDM was diagnosed in 195 women. Receiver operating curves showed a HbA1c cut point of ≥ 5.0% (≥31 mmol/mol) have a sensitivity of 66.2% and specificity of 56.2% for identifying GDM (area under the curve 0.679, confidence interval [CI]: 0.655-0.703). Women with HbA1c ≥ 5.0% (≥31 mmol/mol) were significantly older and had higher body mass index, greater history of previous GDM, and a higher prevalence of macrosomia compared to women with HbA1c < 5.0% (<31 mmol/mol). The adjusted odds ratio for macrosomia in those with HbA1c ≥ 5.0% (≥31 mmol/mol) was 1.92 (CI: 1.24-2.97, P = 0.003). However, other pregnancy outcomes were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: In Asian Indian pregnant women, a HbA1c of 5.0% (31 mmol/mol) or greater is associated with increased risk of macrosomia.

Gestational Weight Gain and Pregnancy Outcomes in Relation to Body Mass Index in Asian Indian Women.

AIM: The aim of the study was to compare the weight gain during pregnancy (using Institute of Medicine guidelines) among Asian Indians across different body mass index (BMI) categories (using World Health Organization Asia Pacific BMI cut points) and to compare the pregnancy outcomes in each of the different BMI categories. METHODOLOGY: Retrospective records of 2728 pregnant women attending antenatal clinics and private maternity centers in Chennai, South India, from January 2011 to January 2014 were studied. Pregnancy outcomes were analyzed in relation to BMI and weight gain across different BMI categories. RESULTS: Overweight and obese women who gained more weight during pregnancy were at high risk of delivering macrosomic infants (overweight - odds ratio [OR]: 2.3, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-5.2, P = 0.02 and obese - OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.4, P = 0.01). In addition, obese women who gained more weight were also at high risk of preterm labor (OR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.1-3.8; P = 0.01), cesarean section (OR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.4-2.5; P < 0.001), and preeclampsia (OR: 2.8, 95% CI: 1.1-7.2, P = 0.03). Normal weight and overweight women who gained less weight had a protective effect from cesarean section and macrosomia. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight/obese women who gained more weight than recommended are at a high risk of developing adverse pregnancy outcomes. Normal and overweight women who gained weight less than recommended have low risk for cesarean section and macrosomia. However, they have a higher (statistically insignificant) risk for low birth weight and preterm birth. This highlights the need for gaining adequate weight during pregnancy.

Current practices in the diagnosis and management of gestational diabetes mellitus in India (WINGS-5).

AIM: To obtain information on existing practices in the diagnosis and management of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) among physicians/diabetologists/endocrinologists and obstetricians/gynecologists (OB/GYNs) in India. METHODS: Details regarding diagnostic criteria used, screening methods, management strategies, and the postpartum follow-up of GDM were obtained from physicians/diabetologists/endocrinologists and OB/GYNs across 24 states of India using online/in-person surveys using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 3841 doctors participated in the survey of whom 68.6% worked in private clinics. Majority of OB/GYNs (84.9%) preferred universal screening for GDM, and screening in the first trimester was performed by 67% of them. Among the OB/GYNs, 600 (36.7%) reported using the nonfasting 2 h criteria for diagnosing GDM whereas 560 (29.4%) of the diabetologists/endocrinologists reported using the same. However, further questioning on the type of blood sample collected and the glucose load used revealed that, in reality, only 208 (12.7%) and 72 (3.8%), respectively, used these criteria properly. The survey also revealed that the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups criteria was followed properly by 299 (18.3%) of OB/GYNs and 376 (19.7%) of physicians/diabetologists/endocrinologists. Postpartum oral glucose tolerance testing was advised by 56% of diabetologists and 71.6% of OB/GYNs. CONCLUSION: More than half of the physicians/diabetologists/endocrinologists and OB/GYNs in India do not follow any of the recommended guidelines for the diagnosis of GDM. This emphasizes the need for increased awareness about screening and diagnosis of GDM both among physicians/diabetologists/endocrinologists and OB/GYNs in India.

Women in India with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Strategy (WINGS): Methodology and development of model of care for gestational diabetes mellitus (WINGS 4).

AIM: The Women In India with GDM Strategy (WINGS) project was conducted with the aim of developing a model of care (MOC) suitable for women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in low- and middle-income countries. METHODOLOGY: The WINGS project was carried out in Chennai, Southern India, in two phases. In Phase I, a situational analysis was conducted to understand the practice patterns of health-care professionals and to determine the best screening criteria through a pilot screening study. RESULTS: Phase II involved developing a MOC-based on findings from the situational analysis and evaluating its effectiveness. The model focused on diagnosis, management, and follow-up of women with GDM who were followed prospectively throughout their pregnancy. An educational booklet was provided to all women with GDM, offering guidance on self-management of GDM including sample meal plans and physical activity tips. A pedometer was provided to all women to monitor step count. Medical nutrition therapy (MNT) was the first line of treatment given to women with GDM. Women were advised to undergo fasting blood glucose and postprandial blood glucose testing every fortnight. Insulin was indicated when the target blood glucose levels were not achieved with MNT. Women were evaluated for pregnancy outcomes and postpartum glucose tolerance status. CONCLUSIONS: The WINGS MOC offers a comprehensive package at every level of care for women with GDM. If successful, this MOC will be scaled up to other resource-constrained settings with the hope of improving lives of women with GDM.

Glucose tolerance status of Asian Indian women with gestational diabetes at 6weeks to 1year postpartum (WINGS-7).

AIM: To determine postpartum glucose tolerance status among women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) recruited under the Women In India with GDM Strategy (WINGS) Model of Care (MOC). METHODS: Through the WINGS MOC programme, 212 women with GDM were followed till delivery between November 2013 and August 2015. All women were advised to return for a postpartum oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 6-12weeks after delivery. A multivariate logistic regression (MLR) model was developed to identify the risk factors for postpartum dysglycemia which was defined as presence of diabetes (DM) or prediabetes. RESULTS: 203/212(95.8%) women completed their postpartum OGTT. Of the 161 women (79.3%) who came back for the test between 6 and 12weeks, 2(1.2%) developed DM, 5(3.1%), isolated IFG, 13(8.1%), isolated IGT and 5(3.1%) combined IFG/IGT [dysglycemia 25(15.5%)]. 136 women (84.5%) reverted to normal glucose tolerance (NGT). Of the 42 women who came back between 12weeks and a year, 5(11.9%) developed DM, 10(23.8%), isolated IFG and 1(2.4%) combined IFG/IGT [dysglycemia 16(38.1%)]. 26/42 women (61.9%) reverted to NGT. Thus overall dysglycemia occurred in 41/203 women (20.2%). MLR showed that BMI ⩾25kg/m(2) was significantly associated with postpartum dysglycemia (odds ratio: 4.47; 95% confidence interval: 1.8-11.2, p=0.001). CONCLUSION: Among Asian Indian women with GDM, over 20% develop dysglycemia within one year postpartum, and BMI ⩾25kg/m(2) increased this risk four-fold. Early postpartum screening can identify high risk women and help plan strategies for prevention of type 2 diabetes in the future.

Comparison of maternal and fetal outcomes among Asian Indian pregnant women with or without gestational diabetes mellitus: A situational analysis study (WINGS-3).

AIM: To compare the existing maternal and fetal outcomes in Asian Indian women with or without gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) before the development of the Women in India with GDM Strategy (WINGS) GDM model of care (MOC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Records of pregnant women were extracted retrospectively from three maternity centers in Chennai. GDM was diagnosed using the International Association for Pregnancy Study Groups criteria or the Carpenter and Coustan criteria. Demographic details, obstetric history, antenatal follow-up, treatment for GDM, and outcomes of delivery were collected from the electronic medical records. RESULTS: Of the 3642 records analyzed, 799 (21.9%) had GDM, of whom 456 (57.1%) were treated with insulin and medical nutrition therapy (MNT), 339 (42.4%) with MNT alone, and 4 (0.5%) with metformin. Women with GDM were older than those without (28.5 ± 4.5 vs. 27.1 ± 4.5 years; P < 0.001) and had higher mean body mass index at first booking (26.4 ± 5.2 kg/m(2) vs. 25.2 ± 5.1 kg/m(2); P < 0.001). Rates of cesarean section (26.2% vs. 18.7%; P < 0.001), preeclampsia (1.8% vs. 0.8%; P = 0.04), and macrosomia (13.9% vs. 10.8%; P = 0.02) were significantly higher among women with GDM. In women with GDM treated with insulin and MNT, emergency cesarean section (16.2% vs. 36.6%; P < 0.0001), preeclampsia (0.7% vs. 3.2%; P = 0.015), and macrosomia (9.9% vs. 18.6%; P = 0.0006) were significantly lesser compared to those treated with MNT alone. CONCLUSION: Pregnancy outcomes were in general worse in GDM women. Treatment with insulin was associated with a significantly lower risk of complications. However, in countries with limited access to insulin and other medicines may lead to poor follow-up and management of GDM. Data from this retrospective study will form the basis for the development of the WINGS GDM MOC, which will address these gaps in GDM care in low-resource settings.

Use of capillary blood glucose for screening for gestational diabetes mellitus in resource-constrained settings.

AIMS: The aim of the study was to evaluate usefulness of capillary blood glucose (CBG) for diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in resource-constrained settings where venous plasma glucose (VPG) estimations may be impossible. METHODS: Consecutive pregnant women (n = 1031) attending antenatal clinics in southern India underwent 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Fasting, 1- and 2-h VPG (AU2700 Beckman, Fullerton, CA) and CBG (One Touch Ultra-II, LifeScan) were simultaneously measured. Sensitivity and specificity were estimated for different CBG cut points using the International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria for the diagnosis of GDM as gold standard. Bland-Altman plots were drawn to look at the agreement between CBG and VPG. Correlation and regression equation analysis were also derived for CBG values. RESULTS: Pearson's correlation between VPG and CBG for fasting was r = 0.433 [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.596, p < 0.001], for 1H, it was r = 0.653 (ICC = 0.776, p < 0.001), and for 2H, r = 0.784 (ICC = 0.834, p < 0.001). Comparing a single CBG 2-h cut point of 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) with the IADPSG criteria, the sensitivity and specificity were 62.3 and 80.7 %, respectively. If CBG cut points of 120 mg/dl (6.6 mmol/l) or 110 mg/dl (6.1 mmol/l) were used, the sensitivity improves to 78.3 and 92.5 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In settings where VPG estimations are not possible, CBG can be used as an initial screening test for GDM, using lower 2H CBG cut points to maximize the sensitivity. Those who screen positive can be referred to higher centers for definitive testing, using VPG.

Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in urban and rural Tamil Nadu using IADPSG and WHO 1999 criteria (WINGS 6).

BACKGROUND: To determine the prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in urban and rural Tamil Nadu in southern India, using the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) and the World Health Organization (WHO) 1999 criteria for GDM. METHODS: A total of 2121 pregnant women were screened for GDM from antenatal clinics in government primary health centres of Kancheepuram district (n = 520) and private maternity centres in Chennai city in Tamil Nadu (n = 1601) between January 2013 to December 2014. Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT) were done after an overnight fast of at least 8 h, using a 75 g glucose load and venous samples were drawn at 0, 1 and 2 h. GDM was diagnosed using both the IADPSG criteria as well as the WHO 1999 criteria for GDM. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of GDM after adjusting for age, BMI, family history of diabetes and previous history of GDM was 18.5 % by IADPSG criteria with no significant urban/rural differences (urban 19.8 % vs rural 16.1 %, p = 0.46). Using the WHO 1999 criteria, the overall adjusted prevalence of GDM was 14.6 % again with no significant urban/rural differences (urban 15.9 % vs rural 8.9 %, p = 0.13). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of GDM by IADPSG was high both using IADPSG as well as WHO 1999 criteria with no significant urban/rural differences. This emphasizes the need for increasing awareness about GDM and for prevention of GDM in developing countries like India.

Comparison of screening for gestational diabetes mellitus by oral glucose tolerance tests done in the non-fasting (random) and fasting states.

AIM: The Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group of India (DIPSI) guidelines recommend the non-fasting 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as a single-step screening and diagnostic test for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The aim of this study was to compare the DIPSI criteria with the World Health Organization (WHO) 1999 and the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria for GDM. METHODS: A total of 1,031 pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in urban and rural Tamil Nadu, India, underwent a 75-g OGTT in both non-fasting and fasting states, 2-3 days apart. Venous plasma glucose was measured using an autoanalyser, and GDM was diagnosed by DIPSI, WHO 1999 and IADPSG criteria. RESULTS: Of the 83 women identified to have GDM by WHO 1999 criteria, only 23 were diagnosed by DIPSI criteria. Of the 106 women diagnosed to have GDM by the IADPSG criteria, only 24 were diagnosed by DIPSI. The DIPSI non-fasting OGTT 2-h VPG cut point of 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) had a very low sensitivity when compared to the WHO 1999 criteria (sensitivity 27.7 %, specificity 97.7 %) and IADPSG criteria (sensitivity 22.6 %, specificity 97.8 %). CONCLUSIONS: The DIPSI non-fasting OGTT criteria cannot be recommended for diagnosis of GDM due to its low sensitivity. Thus, as a single-step diagnostic test for GDM, the fasting OGTT needs to be done. When this is not possible, the well-established two-step procedure using the 50-g glucose challenge test as an initial screening test, followed by the diagnostic fasting OGTT, can be continued.