SSA with CWT and k-Means for Eye-Blink Artifact Removal from Single-Channel EEG Signals.

Recently, the use of portable electroencephalogram (EEG) devices to record brain signals in both health care monitoring and in other applications, such as fatigue detection in drivers, has been increased due to its low cost and ease of use. However, the measured EEG signals always mix with the electrooculogram (EOG), which are results due to eyelid blinking or eye movements. The eye-blinking/movement is an uncontrollable activity that results in a high-amplitude slow-time varying component that is mixed in the measured EEG signal. The presence of these artifacts misled our understanding of the underlying brain state. As the portable EEG devices comprise few EEG channels or sometimes a single EEG channel, classical artifact removal techniques such as blind source separation methods cannot be used to remove these artifacts from a single-channel EEG signal. Hence, there is a demand for the development of new single-channel-based artifact removal techniques. Singular spectrum analysis (SSA) has been widely used as a single-channel-based eye-blink artifact removal technique. However, while removing the artifact, the low-frequency components from the non-artifact region of the EEG signal are also removed by SSA. To preserve these low-frequency components, in this paper, we have proposed a new methodology by integrating the SSA with continuous wavelet transform (CWT) and the k-means clustering algorithm that removes the eye-blink artifact from the single-channel EEG signals without altering the low frequencies of the EEG signal. The proposed method is evaluated on both synthetic and real EEG signals. The results also show the superiority of the proposed method over the existing methods.

Active Volume Control in Smart Phones Based on User Activity and Ambient Noise.

To communicate efficiently with a prospective user, auditory interfaces are employed in mobile communication devices. Diverse sounds in different volumes are used to alert the user in various devices such as mobile phones, modern laptops and domestic appliances. These alert noises behave erroneously in dynamic noise environments, leading to major annoyances to the user. In noisy environments, as sounds can be played quietly, this leads to the improper masked rendering of the necessary information. To overcome these issues, a multi-model sensing technique is developed as a smartphone application to achieve automatic volume control in a smart phone. Based on the ambient environment, the volume is automatically controlled such that it is maintained at an appropriate level for the user. By identifying the average noise level of the ambient environment from dynamic microphone and together with the activity recognition data obtained from the inertial sensors, the automatic volume control is achieved. Experiments are conducted with five different mobile devices at various noise-level environments and different user activity states. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed application for active volume control in dynamic environments.

Analysis of Electric Motor Magnetic Core Loss under Axial Mechanical Stress.

The electrical machine core is subjected to mechanical stresses during manufacturing processes. These stresses include radial, circumferential and axial components that may have significant influence on the magnetic properties and it further leads to increase in iron loss and permeability in the stator core. In this research work, analysis of magnetic core iron loss under axial mechanical stress is investigated. The magnetic core is designed with Magnetic Flux Density (MF) ranging from 1.0 T to 1.5 T with estimated dimensions under various input voltages from 5 V to 85 V. Iron losses are predicted by the axial pressure created manually wherever required and is further applied to the designed magnetic core in the range of 5 MPa to 50 MPa. Finite element analysis is employed to estimate the magnetic core parameters and the magnetic core dimensions. A ring core is designed with the selected dimensions for the experimental evaluation. The analysis of iron loss at 50Hz frequency for non-oriented electrical steel of M400-50A is tested experimentally using the Epstein frame test and force-fit setup test. Experimental evaluation concludes that the magnetic core saturates when it reaches its knee point of the B-H curve of the chosen material and also reveals that the axial pressure has a high impact on the magnetic properties of the material.

Time-Frequency Analysis of Non-Stationary Biological Signals with Sparse Linear Regression Based Fourier Linear Combiner.

It is often difficult to analyze biological signals because of their nonlinear and non-stationary characteristics. This necessitates the usage of time-frequency decomposition methods for analyzing the subtle changes in these signals that are often connected to an underlying phenomena. This paper presents a new approach to analyze the time-varying characteristics of such signals by employing a simple truncated Fourier series model, namely the band-limited multiple Fourier linear combiner (BMFLC). In contrast to the earlier designs, we first identified the sparsity imposed on the signal model in order to reformulate the model to a sparse linear regression model. The coefficients of the proposed model are then estimated by a convex optimization algorithm. The performance of the proposed method was analyzed with benchmark test signals. An energy ratio metric is employed to quantify the spectral performance and results show that the proposed method Sparse-BMFLC has high mean energy (0.9976) ratio and outperforms existing methods such as short-time Fourier transfrom (STFT), continuous Wavelet transform (CWT) and BMFLC Kalman Smoother. Furthermore, the proposed method provides an overall 6.22% in reconstruction error.

Identification of Optimal and Most Significant Event Related Brain Functional Network.

Advancements in network science have facilitated the study of brain communication networks. Existing techniques for identifying event-related brain functional networks (BFNs) often result in fully connected networks. However, determining the optimal and most significant network representation for event-related BFNs is crucial for understanding complex brain networks. The presence of both false and genuine connections in the fully connected network requires network thresholding to eliminate false connections. However, a generalized framework for thresholding in network neuroscience is currently lacking. To address this, we propose four novel methods that leverage network properties, energy, and efficiency to select a generalized threshold level. This threshold serves as the basis for identifying the optimal and most significant event-related BFN. We validate our methods on an openly available emotion dataset and demonstrate their effectiveness in identifying multiple events. Our proposed approach can serve as a versatile thresholding technique to represent the fully connected network as an event-related BFN.

EEG-Based Brain Functional Network Analysis for Differential Identification of Dementia-Related Disorders and Their Onset.

Diagnosing and treating dementia, including mild cognitive impairment (MCI), is challenging due to diverse disease types and overlapping symptoms. Early MCI detection is vital as it can precede dementia, yet distinguishing it from later stage dementia is intricate due to subtle symptoms. The primary objective of this study is to adopt a complex network perspective to unravel the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of dementia-related disorders. Leveraging the extensive availability of electroencephalogram (EEG) data, our study focuses on the meticulous identification and analysis of EEG-based brain functional network (BFNs) associated with dementia-related disorders. To achieve this, we employ the Phase Lag Index (PLI) as a connectivity measure, offering a comprehensive view of neural interactions. To enhance the analytical rigor, we introduce a data-driven threshold selection technique. This innovative approach allows us to compare the topological structures of the formulated BFNs using complex network measures quantitatively and statistically. Furthermore, we harness the power of these BFNs by utilizing them as pre-defined graph inputs for a Graph Convolution Network (GCN-net) based approach. The results demonstrate that graph theory metrics, such as the rich-club coefficient, transitivity, and assortativity coefficients, effectively distinguish between MCI, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VD). Furthermore, GCN-net achieves high accuracy (95.07% delta, 80.62% theta) and F1-scores (0.92 delta, 0.67 theta), highlighting the effectiveness of EEG-based BFNs in the analysis of dementia-related disorders.

Time-frequency analysis of band-limited EEG with BMFLC and Kalman filter for BCI applications.

BACKGROUND: Time-Frequency analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG) during different mental tasks received significant attention. As EEG is non-stationary, time-frequency analysis is essential to analyze brain states during different mental tasks. Further, the time-frequency information of EEG signal can be used as a feature for classification in brain-computer interface (BCI) applications. METHODS: To accurately model the EEG, band-limited multiple Fourier linear combiner (BMFLC), a linear combination of truncated multiple Fourier series models is employed. A state-space model for BMFLC in combination with Kalman filter/smoother is developed to obtain accurate adaptive estimation. By virtue of construction, BMFLC with Kalman filter/smoother provides accurate time-frequency decomposition of the bandlimited signal. RESULTS: The proposed method is computationally fast and is suitable for real-time BCI applications. To evaluate the proposed algorithm, a comparison with short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT) for both synthesized and real EEG data is performed in this paper. The proposed method is applied to BCI Competition data IV for ERD detection in comparison with existing methods. CONCLUSIONS: Results show that the proposed algorithm can provide optimal time-frequency resolution as compared to STFT and CWT. For ERD detection, BMFLC-KF outperforms STFT and BMFLC-KS in real-time applicability with low computational requirement.

A hybrid approach for short-term forecasting of wind speed.

We propose a hybrid method for forecasting the wind speed. The wind speed data is first decomposed into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) with empirical mode decomposition. Based on the partial autocorrelation factor of the individual IMFs, adaptive methods are then employed for the prediction of IMFs. Least squares-support vector machines are employed for IMFs with weak correlation factor, and autoregressive model with Kalman filter is employed for IMFs with high correlation factor. Multistep prediction with the proposed hybrid method resulted in improved forecasting. Results with wind speed data show that the proposed method provides better forecasting compared to the existing methods.

Brain network analysis for the discrimination of dementia disorders using electrophysiology signals: A systematic review.

Background: Dementia-related disorders have been an age-long challenge to the research and healthcare communities as their various forms are expressed with similar clinical symptoms. These disorders are usually irreversible at their late onset, hence their lack of validated and approved cure. Since their prodromal stages usually lurk for a long period of time before the expression of noticeable clinical symptoms, a secondary prevention which has to do with treating the early onsets has been suggested as the possible solution. Connectivity analysis of electrophysiology signals has played significant roles in the diagnosis of various dementia disorders through early onset identification. Objective: With the various applications of electrophysiology signals, the purpose of this study is to systematically review the step-by-step procedures of connectivity analysis frameworks for dementia disorders. This study aims at identifying the methodological issues involved in such frameworks and also suggests approaches to solve such issues. Methods: In this study, ProQuest, PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Springer Link, and Science Direct databases are employed for exploring the evolution and advancement of connectivity analysis of electrophysiology signals of dementia-related disorders between January 2016 to December 2022. The quality of assessment of the studied articles was done using Cochrane guidelines for the systematic review of diagnostic test accuracy. Results: Out of a total of 4,638 articles found to have been published on the review scope between January 2016 to December 2022, a total of 51 peer-review articles were identified to completely satisfy the review criteria. An increasing trend of research in this domain is identified within the considered time frame. The ratio of MEG and EEG utilization found within the reviewed articles is 1:8. Most of the reviewed articles employed graph theory metrics for their analysis with clustering coefficient (CC), global efficiency (GE), and characteristic path length (CPL) appearing more frequently compared to other metrics. Significance: This study provides general insight into how to employ connectivity measures for the analysis of electrophysiology signals of dementia-related disorders in order to better understand their underlying mechanism and their differential diagnosis.

ICA With CWT and k-means for Eye-Blink Artifact Removal From Fewer Channel EEG.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the usage of consumer based EEG devices with fewer channel configuration. Although independent component analysis has been a popular approach for eye-blink artifact removal from multichannel EEG signals, several studies showed that there is a leak of neural information into the eye-blink artifact associated independent components (ICs). Furthermore, the leak increases as the number of input EEG channels decreases and leads to loss of valuable EEG information. To overcome this problem, we developed a new framework that combines ICA with continuous wavelet transform (CWT), k- means and singular spectrum analysis (SSA) methods. In contrast to the existing approaches, the artifact region in the identified eye-blink artifact IC is detected and suppressed rather than setting it to zero as in classical ICA. As most of the energy in the eye-blink artifact IC is concentrated in the artifact region, CWT and k- means algorithms exploits this feature to detect the eye-blink artifact region. Support vector machine (SVM) based classifier is finally designed for automatic detection of the eye blink artifact ICs. The performance of proposed method is evaluated on synthetic and two real EEG datasets for various EEG channels setting. Results highlight that for fewer channel EEG signals, the proposed method provides accurate separation without any neural information loss as compared to the existing methods.

Estimation of physiological tremor from accelerometers for real-time applications.

Accurate filtering of physiological tremor is extremely important in robotics assisted surgical instruments and procedures. This paper focuses on developing single stage robust algorithms for accurate tremor filtering with accelerometers for real-time applications. Existing methods rely on estimating the tremor under the assumption that it has a single dominant frequency. Our time-frequency analysis on physiological tremor data revealed that tremor contains multiple dominant frequencies over the entire duration rather than a single dominant frequency. In this paper, the existing methods for tremor filtering are reviewed and two improved algorithms are presented. A comparative study is conducted on all the estimation methods with tremor data from microsurgeons and novice subjects under different conditions. Our results showed that the new improved algorithms performed better than the existing algorithms for tremor estimation. A procedure to separate the intended motion/drift from the tremor component is formulated.

Eye-blink artifact removal from single channel EEG with k-means and SSA.

In recent years, the usage of portable electroencephalogram (EEG) devices are becoming popular for both clinical and non-clinical applications. In order to provide more comfort to the subject and measure the EEG signals for several hours, these devices usually consists of fewer EEG channels or even with a single EEG channel. However, electrooculogram (EOG) signal, also known as eye-blink artifact, produced by involuntary movement of eyelids, always contaminate the EEG signals. Very few techniques are available to remove these artifacts from single channel EEG and most of these techniques modify the uncontaminated regions of the EEG signal. In this paper, we developed a new framework that combines unsupervised machine learning algorithm (k-means) and singular spectrum analysis (SSA) technique to remove eye blink artifact without modifying actual EEG signal. The novelty of the work lies in the extraction of the eye-blink artifact based on the time-domain features of the EEG signal and the unsupervised machine learning algorithm. The extracted eye-blink artifact is further processed by the SSA method and finally subtracted from the contaminated single channel EEG signal to obtain the corrected EEG signal. Results with synthetic and real EEG signals demonstrate the superiority of the proposed method over the existing methods. Moreover, the frequency based measures [the power spectrum ratio ([Formula: see text]) and the mean absolute error (MAE)] also show that the proposed method does not modify the uncontaminated regions of the EEG signal while removing the eye-blink artifact.

Estimating Displacement of Periodic Motion With Inertial Sensors.

Inertial sensors, like accelerometers and gyroscopes, are rarely used by themselves to measure displacement. Accuracy of inertial sensors is greatly handicapped by the notorious integration drift, which arises due to numerical integration of the sensors zero bias error. A solution is proposed in this paper to provide drift free estimation of displacement from inertial sensors.

Evidence of a "Clock" Determining Human Locomotion.

The motor control of human locomotion is still an open issue, and it may be the leading cause of the low effectiveness of lower limbs rehabilitation therapies. Locomotion motor control has proved to be fundamentally different from the upper limbs reaching task strategies, which have been used for the development of current motor control computational models used to define rehabilitation protocols. The main difference between these two tasks is the relevance of the environmental dynamics in task planning and execution. Reaching movements are dominated by the intrinsic impedance of the human body. On the other hand, locomotion is determined by the interaction between the human body and Earth's gravity. The dynamic primitives have been recently proposed to explain how humans account for the environmental dynamics during motor control; however, it is not yet possible to explain how the nervous system combines the information. This paper proposes and validates with human data that the brain controls locomotion to have the centre of mass moving between the two legs as a harmonic oscillator. This finding has enabled us to propose a control architecture that can explain how the motor primitives can be described as a special type of dynamics primitives.

A Postural Model for Tracking the Base of Support.

Mobility impairment is a major challenge for the healthcare systems of developed countries. Balance deterio-ration is a physiological consequence of the ageing process, which makes it an endemic problem in ageing societies. Despite the importance of this issue, the development of appropriate therapies and protocols is challenging due to our limited understanding of human locomotion and equilibrium. This paper presents a technique that can track the BoS geometry from the feet' posture and its validation with healthy subjects. The proposed model uses a posture dependent reference frame called Saddle Space, which is aligned to the principal direction of the potential energy surface. The target application for the model described in this paper is the development of sensors for the evaluation of balance during activity of daily living. However, the proposed methodology can also be applied to bipedal robots, and the saddle space can also be employed to describe other posture dependent variables.

Evolutionary Algorithm Based Feature Optimization for Multi-Channel EEG Classification.

The most BCI systems that rely on EEG signals employ Fourier based methods for time-frequency decomposition for feature extraction. The band-limited multiple Fourier linear combiner is well-suited for such band-limited signals due to its real-time applicability. Despite the improved performance of these techniques in two channel settings, its application in multiple-channel EEG is not straightforward and challenging. As more channels are available, a spatial filter will be required to eliminate the noise and preserve the required useful information. Moreover, multiple-channel EEG also adds the high dimensionality to the frequency feature space. Feature selection will be required to stabilize the performance of the classifier. In this paper, we develop a new method based on Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) to solve these two problems simultaneously. The real-valued EA encodes both the spatial filter estimates and the feature selection into its solution and optimizes it with respect to the classification error. Three Fourier based designs are tested in this paper. Our results show that the combination of Fourier based method with covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMA-ES) has the best overall performance.

Predictive local receptive fields based respiratory motion tracking for motion-adaptive radiotherapy.

Extracranial robotic radiotherapy employs external markers and a correlation model to trace the tumor motion caused by the respiration. The real-time tracking of tumor motion however requires a prediction model to compensate the latencies induced by the software (image data acquisition and processing) and hardware (mechanical and kinematic) limitations of the treatment system. A new prediction algorithm based on local receptive fields extreme learning machines (pLRF-ELM) is proposed for respiratory motion prediction. All the existing respiratory motion prediction methods model the non-stationary respiratory motion traces directly to predict the future values. Unlike these existing methods, the pLRF-ELM performs prediction by modeling the higher-level features obtained by mapping the raw respiratory motion into the random feature space of ELM instead of directly modeling the raw respiratory motion. The developed method is evaluated using the dataset acquired from 31 patients for two horizons in-line with the latencies of treatment systems like CyberKnife. Results showed that pLRF-ELM is superior to that of existing prediction methods. Results further highlight that the abstracted higher-level features are suitable to approximate the nonlinear and non-stationary characteristics of respiratory motion for accurate prediction.

Real-time physiological tremor estimation using recursive singular spectrum analysis.

Physiological hand tremor causes undesirable vibration of hand-held surgical instruments which results in imprecisions and poor surgical outcomes. Existing tremor cancellation algorithms are based on detection of the tremulous component from the whole motion; then adding an anti-phase tremor signal to the whole motion to cancel it out. These techniques are based on adaptive filtering algorithms which need a reference signal that is highly correlated with the actual tremor signal. Hence, such adaptive approaches use a non-linear phase filter to pre-filter the tremor signal either offline or in real-time. However, pre-filtering causes unnecessary delays and non-linear phase distortions as the filter has frequency selective delays. Consequently, the anti-phase tremor signal cannot be generated accurately which results in poor tremor cancellation. In this paper, we present a new technique based on singular spectrum analysis (SSA) and its recursive version, that is, recursive singular spectrum analysis (RSSA). These algorithms decompose the whole motion into dominant voluntary components corresponding to larger eigenvalues and oscillatory tremor components having smaller eigenvalues. By selecting a group of specific decomposed signals based on their eigenvalues and spectral range, both voluntary and tremor signals can be reconstructed accurately. We test the SSA and RSSA algorithms using recorded tremor data from five novice subjects. This new approach shows the tremor signal can be estimated from the whole motion with an accuracy of up to 85% offline. In real-time, tolerating a delay of ≈ 72ms, the tremor signal can be estimated with at least 70% accuracy. This delay is found to be one-tenth of the delay caused by a conventional linear-phase bandpass filter to achieve similar performance in real-time.

Automatic annotation of peaks in seismocardiogram for systolic time intervals.

Siemocardiography is a non-invasive technique for cardiomechanical assessment by analyzing the local vibrations on chest surface which can be readily acquired from cost-effective accelerometers. The peaks in siesmocardiogram (SCG) signal correspond to underlying mechanical events in heart cycle and have numerious potential clinical and health-awareness applications. However, utilization of SCG signal requires annotation of these peaks that is challenging due to variations in inter-subject morphology and noise prone characteristics of SCG signal. In this paper, we propose an approach to automatically annotate the desired peaks in SCG signal that are required for systolic time intervals (STI). The approach is based on formulating sliding template for the oncoming beat which is less noisier and hence desired peak detection is easier. The information of peak detected in the sliding template is then used to narrow-down the search of desired peak in actual signal.

Three-dimensional modeling of physiological tremor for hand-held surgical robotic instruments.

Hand-held robotic instruments are developed to compensate physiological tremor in real-time while augmenting the required precision and dexterity into normal microsurgical work-flow. The hardware (sensors and actuators) and software (causal linear filters) employed for tremor identification and filtering introduces time-varying unknown phase-delay that adversely affects the device performance. The current techniques that focus on three-dimensions (3D) tip position control involves modeling and canceling the tremor in 3-axes (x, y, and z axes) separately. Our analysis with the tremor data recorded from surgeons and novice subjects show that there exists significant correlation in tremor motion across the dimensions. Motivated by this, a new multi-dimensional modeling approach based on extreme learning machines (ELM) is proposed in this paper to correct the phase delay and to accurately model tremulous motion in three dimensions simultaneously. A study is conducted with tremor data recorded from the microsurgeons to analyze the suitability of proposed approach.