Antecedents to and outcomes associated with teacher-child relationship perceptions in early childhood: Further evidence for child-driven effects.

Preschool teachers' perceptions about relationships with students (teacher-child relationships [TCRs]) predict children's subsequent social competence (SC) and academic progress. Why this is so remains unclear. Do TCRs shape children's development, or do child attributes influence both TCRs and subsequent development? Relations between TCRs and other measures were examined for 185 preschoolers (107 girls, 89 longitudinal, and ~75% European American). Teachers rated TCRs and child social/affective behaviors. Teacher-child interactions (TCIs) and children's affect expressiveness were observed. Child SC and receptive vocabulary were assessed. TCRs were significantly correlated with each type of outcome. TCIs, SC, expressed affect, and teacher-rated behaviors also predicted TCRs longitudinally. Results suggest that TCR ratings predict subsequent adaptation because they summarize children's behavioral profiles rather than on TCR quality per se.

Attachment goes to court: child protection and custody issues.

Attachment theory and research are drawn upon in many applied settings, including family courts, but misunderstandings are widespread and sometimes result in misapplications. The aim of this consensus statement is, therefore, to enhance understanding, counter misinformation, and steer family-court utilisation of attachment theory in a supportive, evidence-based direction, especially with regard to child protection and child custody decision-making. The article is divided into two parts. In the first, we address problems related to the use of attachment theory and research in family courts, and discuss reasons for these problems. To this end, we examine family court applications of attachment theory in the current context of the best-interest-of-the-child standard, discuss misunderstandings regarding attachment theory, and identify factors that have hindered accurate implementation. In the second part, we provide recommendations for the application of attachment theory and research. To this end, we set out three attachment principles: the child's need for familiar, non-abusive caregivers; the value of continuity of good-enough care; and the benefits of networks of attachment relationships. We also discuss the suitability of assessments of attachment quality and caregiving behaviour to inform family court decision-making. We conclude that assessments of caregiver behaviour should take center stage. Although there is dissensus among us regarding the use of assessments of attachment quality to inform child custody and child-protection decisions, such assessments are currently most suitable for targeting and directing supportive interventions. Finally, we provide directions to guide future interdisciplinary research collaboration.

Measurement invariance across mother/child and father/child attachment relationships.

We examine the factorial structure of the Security Scale Questionnaire (SSQ), exploring measurement invariance across mother-father-child attachment relationships, child sex, and country. We used the new 21-item SSQ version that integrates both safe haven and secure base behaviors in a two factors structure. Participants were 457 children (224 girls and 233 boys), ranging from 9 to 14 years old (M = 10.84, SD = 1.02) from Portuguese and USA samples. We confirmed the SSQ's two-factor structure, although four items were unrelated to the latent structure and excluded from the final model. Results showed that SSQ can be used to study both mother/child and father/child attachment relationships. Multi-group analyses suggested measurement invariance between boys and girls and between Portuguese and USA samples. Our findings suggest that the SSQ can be considered a valid and cost-effective tool to measure perceived attachment security in middle childhood for both mother/child and father/child relationships.

Perceptions of Portuguese parents about the acceptability of a multicomponent intervention targeted at behavioral inhibition during early childhood.

High and stable behavioral inhibition during early childhood is a risk factor for later anxiety disorders. The few available interventions targeted at behavioral inhibition have not yet been implemented in European countries. Evaluating intervention acceptability is essential when introducing interventions in new cultures. This study aimed to explore the perceptions of parents about the acceptability of the multicomponent Turtle Program in Portugal. Participants were 12 parents (from seven families) of children with a positive screening on the Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire and no diagnoses of developmental disorders/selective mutism. Children's mean age was 55.86 months and most children were female and first-born. Parents and children participated in the eight-sessions Turtle Program. After each session, parents completed weekly satisfaction checklists. Following completion of the full intervention, parents were invited to participate in individual qualitative in-depth interviews. The thematic analysis revealed that both parents perceived the intervention objectives and contents as relevant. Both parents suggested the introduction of follow-up sessions, the discussion of practical experiences, the need to be sensitive to cultural differences in positive language, and the provision of more feedback about children's activities. These findings support prior research on the acceptability and cultural tailoring needed for parenting and child socioemotional learning interventions.

Una alta y estable conducta de inhibición durante la temprana niñez es un factor de riesgo para posteriores trastornos de ansiedad. Las pocas intervenciones disponibles que se enfocan en la inhibición de la conducta no se han implementado aún en países europeos. Evaluar el nivel de aceptación de la intervención es esencial cuando las intervenciones se introducen en nuevas culturas. Este estudio se propuso explorar las percepciones de los progenitores acerca del nivel de aceptación del multi-compuesto Programa Tortuga en Portugal. Los participantes fueron 12 progenitores (de siete familias) de niños con una positiva detección en el Cuestionario de Inhibición de la Conducta y sin diagnóstico de trastornos de desarrollo/mutismo selectivo. La edad promedio de los niños fue 55.86 meses y la mayoría eran niñas y primogénitas. Los progenitores y los niños participaron en las ocho sesiones del Programa Tortuga. Después de cada sesión, los progenitores completaron listas semanales de chequeo de la satisfacción. Luego de completar la intervención en su totalidad, se invitó a los progenitores a participar en entrevistas cualitativas individuales para profundizar. Los análisis temáticos revelaron que ambos progenitores percibieron como relevantes los objetivos y el contenido de la intervención. Ambos progenitores sugirieron introducir sesiones de seguimiento, la discusión de experiencias prácticas, la necesidad de mostrarse sensible a las diferencias culturales en lenguaje positivo y la provisión de más información sobre las actividades de los niños. Estos resultados apoyan la investigación anterior sobre el nivel de aceptación y la adaptación cultural necesarias en las intervenciones sobre la crianza y el aprendizaje socioemocional del niño.

L'inhibition comportementale élevée et stable durant la petite enfance est un facteur de risque pour des troubles de l'anxiété plus tard. Quelques interventions disponibles ciblant l'inhibition comportementale n'ont pas encore été mises en œuvre dans les pays européens. Evaluer l'acceptabilité de l'intervention est essentiel lorsqu'on introduit des interventions dans de nouvelles cultures. Cette étude s'est donnée pour but d'explorer les perceptions des parents à propos de l'acceptabilité du Programme Tortue à composants multiples au Portugal. Les participants ont consisté en 12 parents (de sept familles) d'enfants ayant eu un dépistage positif au Questionnaire d'Inhibition Comportementale et aucun diagnostic de troubles développementaux / mutisme sélectif. L'âge moyen des enfants était de 55,86 mois et la plupart des enfants étaient des filles et des premières nées. Les parents et les enfants ont participé au Programme Tortue de huit séances. Après chaque séance les parents ont rempli des checklists de satisfaction hebdomadaires. Après avoir terminé l'intervention totale les parents ont été invité à participer à des entretiens individuels en profondeur et qualitatifs. L'analyse thématique a révélé que les deux parents percevaient les objectifs d'intervention et les contenus comme étant pertinents. Les deux parents ont suggéré l'introduction de séances de suivi, la discussion d'expériences pratiques, le besoin d'être sensible aux différences culturelles dans le langage positif et le besoin de plus de commentaires sur les activités des enfants. Ces résultats soutiennent les recherches précédentes sur l'acceptabilité et l'adaptation culturelle nécessaire pour le parentage et les interventions pour le développement socioémotionnel de l'enfant.

Early father-child and mother-child attachment relationships: contributions to preschoolers' social competence.

The main goal of this study was to explore the contributions of early father-child and mother-child attachment relationships to children's later social competence with their preschool peers; possible unique and shared contributions were tested. Using a multi-method design and focusing on direct observation, attachment was assessed at home at age 3 with the Attachment Behavior Q-sort (AQS) and two years later social competence was assessed at classrooms of 5-year-olds using a set of seven measurement indicators that are part of the Hierarchical Model of Social Competence. Results show that attachment to each parent made unique and significant contributions to children's social competence and suggested the possibility that each caregiver may have somewhat different patterns of influence on the different indicators of children's social competence. Findings also suggest the possibility that a secure attachment with one parent may buffer the impact of having an insecure relationship with the other. Due to sample size, these results should be seen as a starting point to generate new and larger studies.

Scripted knowledge about attachment and social competence in preschoolers: overview.

The papers in this special issue of Attachment & Human Development address questions concerning relations between attachment representations and social competence during early childhood in samples from five different countries. All studies examined these questions using the concept of the "secure base script" that has been widely studied in samples of adults, adolescents, and school-age children. In all samples, the secure base script was scored from attachment-relevant narratives elicited from children in a doll-play task. Consistent with existing literatures, the secure base script score had positive and significant associations with adult ratings of child social competence, even in the presence of potential confounding covariates.

Assessing and quantifying the secure base script from narratives produced by preschool age children: justification and validation tests.

Building on aframework presented by Bretherton and associates, Waters and associates argued that interaction sequences relevant to children's access to and use of asecure base for exploration during infancy/toddlerhood become internalized as script-like representations. For adults, these scripted representations are readily assessed using word-prompt lists d to elicit attachment relevant narratives. However, this method is not appropriate during early childhood. Waters and associates used stories from Bretherton's Attachment Story Completion Task for this purpose. However, the method they used to score secure base script use is not efficient for larger samples (e.g. over 50), and new approaches for scoring have been designed. We describe two approaches to story selection and scoring for access to and use of the secure base script. The two scoring methods show substantial and significant overlap and also have significant associations with other methods of measuring attachment security during early childhood.

Preschoolers' secure base script representations predict teachers' ratings of social competence and externalizing behavior.

Recent meta-analyses have reported significant effects of attachment quality on social competence, mostly using observational assessments of attachment behavior to assess security. We analyze the associations between attachment security - assessed as a secure base script, and social competence with peers - measured by teachers' ratings on two self-report instruments, in a Portuguese sample of 82 preschool children (34 boys and 48 girls). We also tested the association between children's secure base script scores and teacher ratings for externalizing and internalizing symptomatology. Results show significant sex differences. Girls had higher scores on secure base script and were rated by teachers as more socially competent, while boys received higher ratings for aggressive/externalizing behaviors. Nonetheless, when the effect of child sex was controlled, attachment representations were positively associated with child social competence and negatively associated with ratings of externalizing behaviors.

Preschoolers' secure base script representations predict teachers' ratings of social competence in two independent samples.

Associations between attachment security, assessed as a secure base script (SBS), and teachers' social competence ratings were examined in two samples (one from the Midwest region and the other from the Southern region of the United States). Consistent with previous reports, significant associations between domains were obtained in both samples and after combining the two samples, r = .33, p < .001. The associations remained significant when child sex, age, and verbal intelligence were controlled. Findings are discussed with reference to relations between SBS scores and the covariates. Regarding sex differences, an existing literature suggests that girls, compared with boys, may be advantaged with respect to skills that could support higher scores on the task used to assess secure base scripts. In both samples, teachers rated girls as somewhat higher on scales of social competence and controlling for sex reduced the magnitude of associations between SBS and social competence, but the results remained significant in all tests.

Perceived attachment security to parents and peer victimization: Does adolescent's aggressive behaviour make a difference?

Peer victimization is one of the most prominent problems during adolescence. Research has distinguished aggressive and non-aggressive victims; however, there are still significant drawbacks in understanding the social and family functioning of these different groups of victimized adolescents. This study aimed to compare social behavior and perceived attachment security to parents of Portuguese adolescents, classified as aggressive victims, non-aggressive victims and non-victims. The sample consisted of 222 adolescents (115 boys, 107 girls) who completed the Kerns Security Scale and the Extended Class Play, to assess perceived attachment security and social behavior, respectively. Controlling for age and sex, aggressive victims and non-aggressive victims differed in anxious withdrawal but shared a similar profile in peer exclusion and prosocial behavior. Only aggressive victims reported lower attachment security to mother and father when compared to non-victims. These findings underline that victimized adolescents constitute a heterogeneous group in terms of their social and family functioning.

Direct and indirect relations between parent-child attachments, peer acceptance, and self-esteem for preschool children.

The present study aims to test Bowlby's suggestions concerning relations between the child's attachment quality with parents and subsequently constructed models of self-worth during early childhood. In most research on this question, attachment with mothers is considered in relation to self-worth but the child's attachment with fathers is not. Neither has the peer group been studied as an influence on child self-esteem, in the context of attachment research. This study addresses these relatively unstudied influences on child self-esteem. Attachment security to mother and father was measured by the Attachment Behavior Q-Set at two and half years of age. At five years of age social acceptance was measured using two sociometric techniques, and the self-esteem with the California Child Q-Sort. Our analyses indicated that security of the attachment to father and peer acceptance are both unique, significant predictors of the childrens' self-esteem. The security of the attachment to mother was also related to child self-esteem but did not emerge as a uniquely significant predictor. Peer acceptance appeared to moderate of the effect of the security of the attachment to father on the self-esteem of children. Our results extend the relatively sparse literature relating early attachments to self-esteem during early childhood.

Is the secure base phenomenon evident here, there, and anywhere? A cross-cultural study of child behavior and experts' definitions.

The evolutionary rationale offered by Bowlby implies that secure base relationships are common in child-caregiver dyads and thus, child secure behavior observable across diverse social contexts and cultures. This study offers a test of the universality hypothesis. Trained observers in nine countries used the Attachment Q-set to describe the organization of children's behavior in naturalistic settings. Children (N = 547) were 10-72 months old. Child development experts (N = 81) from all countries provided definitions of optimal child secure base use. Findings indicate that children from all countries use their mother as a secure base. Children's organization of secure base behavior was modestly related to each other both within and across countries. Experts' descriptions of the optimally attached child were highly similar across cultures.

Work Gains and Strains on Father Involvement: The Mediating Role of Parenting Styles.

The balance between work and family demands is one of the main challenges of contemporary parenting. However, most of the research has focused on mothers' perspectives, with fathers' perspectives about the links between work-family activities and father involvement, as well as the role of indirect effects, such as parenting styles, being less explored. This study aims to bridge these gaps by exploring whether work strains or gains are related to father involvement in childcare and the mediating role of parental styles, focusing on fathers' reports. Working, married fathers of preschoolers (n = 411) self-reported about work strains and gains, parental styles, and father involvement. Structural equation modeling, using maximum-likelihood estimation, provided good fit indices. Results of the bootstrap analysis revealed how fathers' gains indirectly increased involvement both in direct and indirect care through positive parental styles. Otherwise, fathers' strains at work had a negative indirect effect on direct care through negative parental styles. Findings contribute to work-family interface by showing how parental styles account for mediating environmental challenges on father involvement.

Attachment to Mother and Father, Sleep, and Well-Being in Late Middle Childhood.

The security of attachment has been related to several advantageous developmental outcomes, such as good sleep quality and higher well-being indicators. However, few studies concern the associations between attachment dimensions to both parents, sleep, and well-being in late middle childhood. Our study aims to expand knowledge in this area, clarifying the above-mentioned associations by considering the secure base and safe haven dimensions of attachment. We also investigate the role of sleep as a mediator of the relationship between attachment and well-being. The 258 participants (49.2% girls, mean age = 11.19, SD = 0.85) completed self-report questionnaires regarding attachment (KSS), sleep (SSR), and well-being (CHIP-CE). The results show significant associations between attachment to both parents (0.40 ** ≤ r ≤ 0.61 **) and between attachment security, sleep (-0.21 ** ≤ r ≤ -0.35 **) and child well-being (0.42 ** ≤ r ≤ 0.47 **). Besides, sleep quality partially mediated the relations between all attachment dimensions to both parents and well-being. The results are discussed in light of attachment theory, focusing on the comparison between attachment to mother and father as a valid framework to unravel differences in child well-being, with sleep as a process that can help to explain the mechanisms through which attachment security enables subjective perceptions of well-being.

Preschoolers' Beliefs, Emotions and Intended Responses toward Peer Behaviors: Do Children's Sex, Age, and Social Behavior Make a Difference?

Children's self-imposed isolation in the company of others (social withdrawal due to shyness or unsociability) and active isolation due to direct aggressive behaviors can challenge successful engagement in the peer group. The developmental attributional perspective acknowledges that children's intended affiliative responses are, in part, guided by their emotions and beliefs toward peers' social behaviors and may differ depending on children's sex, age group, and social behavior. This study aimed to (1) describe preschoolers' beliefs, emotions, and intended affiliative preferences toward aggressive, shy, and unsociable peers, depending on children's sex and age group, and (2) explore the associations between preschoolers' beliefs, emotions and intended affiliative preferences, depending on children's social behaviors and children's sex or age group. A total of 158 preschoolers aged 3-6 years were interviewed, using the Child Attributions Interview to assess their beliefs, emotions and intended affiliative preferences toward peers. Teachers completed the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Scale to assess children's prosocial behaviors, aggressive-anger, and anxious-withdrawal. Preschoolers' perspectives toward shy and unsociable peers were less negative than toward aggressive peers. However, participants in our sample were not fully aware of the different intentionality and social motivations of shy and unsociable peers. Higher levels of perceived social standing, social motivation and sympathy predicted higher affiliative preferences toward shy, unsociable, and aggressive peers. However, the magnitude of the associations between preschoolers' beliefs, emotions and intended affiliative preferences differed, depending on children's sex, age group and prosocial behavior, especially toward aggressive and shy peer behaviors. These findings are in line with the developmental attributional perspective, but highlight the need to account for developmental specificities, sex differences in peer relationships and children's individual differences in social behaviors.

Father Involvement and Maternal Stress: The Mediating Role of Coparenting.

In recent years mothers have been finding themselves overwhelmed by the need to balance work and maternal duties. Father involvement in childcare has been related to a decrease in mother's burden in childcare. This association is influenced by multiple aspects, such as the way parents share parenting perspectives and views about child rearing, i.e., coparenting. Nevertheless, the mediating role of coparenting on the association between father involvement and maternal stress has been overlooked. This will be addressed by the current study. A total of 254 Portuguese married/cohabiting mothers of preschool children reported on maternal stress, father involvement in caregiving, and coparenting. Data was collected in public and private schools through questionnaires and online through advertisements in social media. Results show that greater father involvement in direct care was associated with greater maternal stress, but this direction changes when mediated by cooperative coparenting. Moreover, results suggest that when mothers perceived less conflict in coparenting, greater father (in)direct care contributed to decreased maternal stress. The current study supports the notion that fathers involvement and parent's cooperation account to mothers' wellbeing, which will improve family dynamics.

Preschool Teachers' Cognitions, Emotions, and Tolerance toward Children's Hypothetical Social Behaviors in the Classroom.

Teachers' tolerance toward children's social behaviors is, in part, guided by teachers' cognitions and emotions. Few studies have examined the associations between teachers' cognitions, emotions, and tolerance toward children's social behaviors. This study aimed to (1) describe the cognitions, emotions, and tolerance of Portuguese preschool teachers toward children's shy, physically and relationally aggressive, rough-and-tumble play, exuberant, and unsociable behaviors at preschool, depending on children's sex; and (2) examine the direct and indirect associations (via teachers' emotions) between teachers' cognitions and tolerance toward children's social behaviors, depending on children's sex. One hundred and seven preschool teachers completed the Child Behaviors Vignettes. Preschool teachers displayed more negative views toward children's physical and relational aggression, reported positive perspectives toward children's rough play and mixed attitudes toward children's exuberance, and differentiated shy from unsociable behaviors. Direct associations between teachers' cognitions and tolerance were found only for physical aggression. Teachers' anticipation of negative peer costs and academic performance appear to exert an indirect influence on teachers' tolerance toward physical aggression and unsociability, via increased levels of worry. These findings highlight the role of teachers' emotions for tolerance toward children's social behaviors and the need to enhance their self-awareness.

Complementary Feeding Methods: Associations with Feeding and Emotional Responsiveness.

Learning to eat complementary foods is a crucial milestone for infants, having implications across development. The most used method for introducing complementary foods is Traditional Spoon-Feeding (TSF). However, the alternative method Baby-Led Weaning (BLW) is increasingly becoming used as it has been associated with positive outcomes. Research analyzing associations between complementary feeding methods and responsive parenting is practically non-existent. Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze differences in emotional and feeding responsiveness between caregivers who previously implemented traditional vs. non-traditional feeding approaches. Caregivers (mostly mothers) of 179 children between 3 and 5 years were asked about the complementary feeding method that they had followed previously (70.4% reported using the TSF, 16.8% said they used the BLW and 12.8% used both methods simultaneously). In addition, they reported on their feeding practices using the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire and on their responses to children's distress using the Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale. The results showed that parents who reported using a non-traditional (BLW or both) complementary feeding method reported less pressure to eat and minimization of reactions to children's negative emotions, compared to parents who used a traditional method (although these reported using more problem-focused reactions). The findings suggest that complementary feeding methods and responsive parenting may be linked, leaving the question of which one sets the stage for the other.

Assessing the benefits of the "Intergalactic World" social emotional learning program for 8-12-year-old children in Portugal: perspectives from teachers and caregivers.

Introduction: "Intergalactic World" is a new social-emotional program designed to reduce psychopathological symptoms and improve social and emotional skills in children aged 8-12. This study aims to evaluate the program's benefits from teachers' and caregivers' perspectives, focusing on internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Methods: The findings were obtained through self-reported measures using a pretest-posttest design with a follow-up period, but with no control group. One hundred fifty-four children (M age = 9.66, SD = 0.78) participated in this intervention study. Eleven teachers completed the Teacher's Report Form (TRF) for these children, and 133 caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Participants without caregivers' reports were excluded from the analysis. Data were collected at three-time points: before the intervention (T1), immediately after (T2), and 6 months after the implementation of the program (T3). Results: Results (n = 133) showed an effect of time on the Internalization scores (at T3 for teachers and T2 and T3 for caregivers) with no gender effect and a decrease in the perception of externalizing behaviors with a gender effect: Boys were perceived as exhibiting more externalizing behaviors than girls. However, these behaviors significantly decrease at T3 for teachers and at T2 and T3 for caregivers. Discussion: Despite its limitations, this study highlights the benefits of employing social-emotional programs to help reduce children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors. A multi-informant approach enables a comprehensive analysis and provides insights into the child's significant contexts and interactions with adults.

Validation of the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) with Portuguese Caregivers of 2-to-8-Year-Olds.

Recent findings have demonstrated an increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity and overweight in Portugal, urging the need to study modifiable risk factors such as parental feeding practices. The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) is an important self-report measure assessing a broad range of responsive and non-responsive feeding practices. However, the CFPQ has not yet been validated in Portugal. Therefore, the present study aimed to test the validity of this measure with Portuguese parents of 2-to-8-year-old children. A sample of 409 parents completed a Portuguese-adapted version of the CFPQ and the already validated Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and psychometric analysis were conducted. CFA demonstrated the original 12-factor structure did not fit the sample. EFA identified an eight-factor structure comprising 29 items: Monitoring, Modeling, Environment, Involvement, Emotion Regulation, Restriction for Weight Control, Restriction for Health, and Pressure. Findings suggest that parental feeding practices are sensitive to parents' background cultures and children's developmental period.