Active multilayered capsules for in vivo bone formation.

Interest in the development of new sources of transplantable materials for the treatment of injury or disease has led to the convergence of tissue engineering with stem cell technology. Bone and joint disorders are expected to benefit from this new technology because of the low self-regenerating capacity of bone matrix secreting cells. Herein, the differentiation of stem cells to bone cells using active multilayered capsules is presented. The capsules are composed of poly-L-glutamic acid and poly-L-lysine with active growth factors embedded into the multilayered film. The bone induction from these active capsules incubated with embryonic stem cells was demonstrated in vitro. Herein, we report the unique demonstration of a multilayered capsule-based delivery system for inducing bone formation in vivo. This strategy is an alternative approach for in vivo bone formation. Strategies using simple chemistry to control complex biological processes would be particularly powerful, as they make production of therapeutic materials simpler and more easily controlled.

Polysaccharide films built by simultaneous or alternate spray: a rapid way to engineer biomaterial surfaces.

We investigated polysaccharide films obtained by simultaneous and alternate spraying of a chitosan (CHI) solution as polycation and hyaluronic acid (HA), alginate (ALG), and chondroitin sulfate (CS) solutions as polyanions. For simultaneous spraying, the film thickness increases linearly with the cumulative spraying time and passes through a maximum for polyanion/CHI molar charge ratios lying between 0.6 and 1.2. The size of polyanion/CHI complexes formed in solution was compared with the simultaneously sprayed film growth rate as a function of the polyanion/CHI molar charge ratio. A good correlation was found. This suggests the importance of polyanion/polycation complexation in the simultaneous spraying process. Depending on the system, the film topography is either liquid-like or granular. Film biocompatibility was evaluated using human gingival fibroblasts. A small or no difference is observed in cell viability and adhesion between the two deposition processes. The CHI/HA system appears to be the best for cell adhesion inducing the clustering of CD44, a cell surface HA receptor, at the membrane of cells. Simultaneous or alternate spraying of CHI/HA appears thus to be a convenient and fast procedure for biomaterial surface modifications.

Simultaneous spray coating of interacting species: general rules governing the poly(styrene sulfonate)/poly(allylamine) system.

Simultaneous spraying of two solutions of interacting species onto a substrate held vertically leads to the formation of nanometer-sized coatings. Here we investigate the simultaneous spraying of poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) and poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) solutions leading to the formation of a film composed of PSS/PAH complexes. The thickness of this film increases linearly with the cumulative spraying time. For a given spraying rate of PAH (respectively PSS), the growth rate of the film depends strongly upon the PSS/PAH ratio and passes through a maximum for a PSS/PAH ratio lying between 0.55 and 0.8. For a PSS/PAH ratio that is maintained constant, the growth speed of the film increases linearly with the spraying rate of polyelectrolyte of both solutions. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, we find that the film composition is almost independent of the PSS/PAH (spayed) ratio, with composition very close to 1:1 in PSS:PAH film. The 1:1 PSS:PAH composition is explained by the fact that the simultaneous spraying experiments are carried out with salt-free solutions; thus, electroneutrality in the film requires exact matching of the charges carried by the polyanions and the polycations. Zeta potential measurements reveal that, depending on whether the PSS/PAH spraying rate ratio lies below or above the optimal spraying rate ratio, the film acquires a positive or a negative excess charge. We also find that the overall film morphology, investigated by AFM, is independent of the spraying rate ratio and appears to be composed of nanometer-sized grains which are typically in the 100 nm range.

Three-dimensional sprayed active biological gels and cells for tissue engineering application.

Complex three-dimensional structures can "a priori" be built layer-by-layer with a large number of different components, including various cell types, polyelectrolytes, drugs, proteins, peptides or DNA. Our approach is based on the spraying of such elements in order to form a highly functionalized and structured biomaterial. The proposed route will allow the control at the surface and in depth the distribution of the different included elements (matrix and cells).The main objective of this work concerns the buildup of biomaterials aimed to reconstruct biological tissue. The proposed ways are highly innovative and consist in a simple and progressive spraying of all the elements constituting finally the biomaterial.We report here that it is possible (i) to build an alginate gel by alternate spraying of alginate and Ca(2+); (ii) to spray active alginate gel and cells; (iii) to build layer-by-layer an active reservoir under and on the top of this sprayed gel and cells; (iv) to follow the activity of these sprayed cells with time; (v) to propose a three-dimensional sprayed structure for tissue engineering application.

Harnessing Wharton's jelly stem cell differentiation into bone-like nodule on calcium phosphate substrate without osteoinductive factors.

An important aim of bone regenerative medicine is to design biomaterials with controlled chemical and topographical features to guide stem cell fate towards osteoblasts without addition of specific osteogenic factors. Herein, we find that sprayed bioactive and biocompatible calcium phosphate substrates (CaP) with controlled topography induce, in a well-orchestrated manner, Wharton's jelly stem cells (WJ-SCs) differentiation into osteoblastic lineage without any osteogenic supplements. The resulting WJ-SCs commitment exhibits features of native bone, through the formation of three-dimensional bone-like nodule with osteocyte-like cells embedded into a mineralized type I collagen. To our knowledge, these results present the first observation of a whole differentiation process from stem cell to osteocytes-like on a synthetic material. This suggests a great potential of sprayed CaP and WJ-SCs in bone tissue engineering. These unique features may facilitate the transition from bench to bedside and the development of successful engineered bone. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Designing materials to direct stem cell fate has a relevant impact on stem cell biology and provides insights facilitating their clinical application in regenerative medicine. Inspired by natural bone compositions, a friendly automated spray-assisted system was used to build calcium phosphate substrate (CaP). Sprayed biomimetic solutions using mild conditions led to the formation of CaP with controlled physical properties, good bioactivity and biocompatibility. Herein, we show that via optimization of physical properties, CaP substrate induce osteogenic differentiation of Wharton's jelly stem cells (WJ-SCs) without adding osteogenic supplement factors. These results suggest a great potential of sprayed CaP and WJ-SCs in bone tissue engineering and may facilitate the transition from bench to beside and the development of clinically successful engineered bone.

Polyelectrolyte multilayer film coating and stability at the surfaces of oral prosthesis base polymers: an in vitro and in vivo study.

A new type of coating involving a layer-by-layer technique has been recently reported. This coating is composed of a polyelectrolyte multilayer film that confers specific properties on surfaces to which it is applied. Here, we studied the applicability of such a technique to the coating of oral prostheses, by first testing the construction of polyelectrolyte multilayer films on several polymers used in oral prosthesis bases, and, subsequently, by studying the stability of these coatings in vitro, in human saliva, and in vivo in a rat model. We demonstrated that the multilayered films are able to coat the surfaces of all tested polymers completely, thus increasing their wettability. We also showed that saliva does not degrade the film after 7 days in vitro and after 4 days in vivo. Taken together, our results establish that the layer-by-layer technique is suitable for the coating of oral devices.

Initial adhesion of endothelial cells on polyelectrolyte multilayer films.

Polyelectrolyte multilayer films were recently investigated to favour attachment of Human Vein Umbilical Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) on non-adhesive surfaces. In this study, we evaluated the initial adhesion of HUVECs after 3 h of seeding on two polyelectrolyte multilayer films ending by poly(D-lysine) (PDL) or poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH). In order to obtain information about initial adhesion of HUVECs, cell morphology as well as the expression of beta1 integrins, specific receptors of adhesion, were evaluated after 3 h of seeding on polyelectrolyte multilayer films. The data were also compared to PDL or PAH monolayers (polyelectrolytes terminating the multilayer architecture). The expression of beta1 integrins was not different, whatever are the studied surfaces. However, HUVECs spreading on polyelectrolyte multilayer films, in particular on PAH ending film, was more important as compared to polyelectrolyte monolayers or glass. In conclusion, the best initial adhesion conditions of HUVECs on polyelectrolyte films could not be elucidated, moreover the results suggested also that beta1 integrins could only play a limited role.

Decellularized umbilical artery treated with thin polyelectrolyte multilayer films: potential use in vascular engineering.

Decellularized allograft tissues have been identified as a potential extracellular matrix scaffold for tissue-engineered vascular substitutes. In order to improve the thromboresistance, it is necessary to pre-coat the intra-luminal vessel surface. Recently a new surface modification technique appeared, based on the alternate adsorption of positive and negative charged polyelectrolytes. Our objective was to develop an alternative vascular scaffold made of decellularized human umbilical arteries treated with a PAH/PSS polyelectrolyte multilayered film. The vessels luminal surfaces covered with the multilayer film were observed by electronic scanning microscopy. Our observations showed that the luminal surface is completely devoid of ECs following treatment with trypsin. A top view of the coated artery indicated that the multilayer uniformly covered internal surface of the vessels. The successful of the multilayer correct deposition and retention on the arterial wall were controlled by confocal microscopy using a fluorescent polyelectrolyte (rhodamine-PAH). The data suggest that decellularized cryopreserved arteries represent a potential scaffold for further vascular tissue engineering efforts. Moreover, the multilayer films can be used to coat biological surfaces and following the terminated layer (PAH or PSS), favour the cell adhesion or cell resistance.

Do physiological concentrations of IgG induce a direct aggregation of red blood cells: comparison with fibrinogen.

Under physiological conditions, red blood cells (RBCs) form aggregates that allow blood flow in all the circulatory system. RBC aggregation is the result of local flow shear stress, erythrocyte properties and macromolecular interactions between adjacent cells. Plasma proteins like fibrinogen or IgG are considered to promote RBC aggregation by a mechanism that remains to be explained. In the present study, we have examined the precise role of IgG on RBC fast-phase aggregation, in comparison with that of fibrinogen. Under our experimental conditions, we observed no fast-phase aggregating effect for IgG, at either physiological or supraphysiological concentrations, while fibrinogen induces strong aggregation of RBC. We also suspect the other plasma proteins to play a role in the RBC aggregating process.

Behaviour of endothelial cells seeded on thin polyelectrolyte multilayered films: a new biological scaffold.

The surface modification using thin polyelectrolyte multilayered films was proposed as a new scaffold material for different cell lines. In this study, we evaluated the possible use of polyelectrolyte multilayers as surface modification for the development of endothelial cells. In order to control the behaviour of endothelial cells, cell viability by MTT assay was studied. Moreover, the endothelial cell phenotype was checked and the expression of a leukocyte adhesion molecule (ICAM-1) was quantified. The behaviour of the cells on two polyelectrolyte multilayers was compared to cells on polystyrene, and two polyelectrolyte monolayers (terminating the multilayer architectures). The results have shown a better cell viability on the polyelectrolyte multilayers, inducing a higher cell number compared to polyelectrolyte monolayers after 1 and 3 days of culture. Moreover, the cells showed a normal morphology of cytoskeleton. The phenotype of the endothelial cells was kept and a low level of leukocyte adhesion molecules was observed. In conclusion, the polyelectrolyte multilayers can be considered as a potential surface modification procedure to enhance the development of endothelial cells on hydrophobic substrate and which can be applied to vascular tissue engineering.

Ultrastructural aspects of the intact titanium implant-bone interface from undecalcified ultrathin sections.

An osseointegrated oral implant with surrounding bone was used for electron microscopical analyses of the implant-bone interface. The bulk metal was removed by sawing and grinding techniques, leaving only the plasma-sprayed titanium coating anchored in mineralized bone. Ultrathin sections were realized from these reduced interface areas and underwent ultrastructural and crystallographic assessments. The microscopical observations showed that ultramicrotomy was suitable for producing such interface sections. Two different, concomitant, interfacial structures were noticed. On the one hand it was possible to observe bone crystals directly apposed on the implant surface; on the other, a granular electron-dense substance was interposed between the plasma-sprayed coating and the bone. The applied technical approach allows one to study the osseointegration process, at high resolution levels, of intact interfaces from complete osseointegrated implants.

Endothelial cells grown on thin polyelectrolyte mutlilayered films: an evaluation of a new versatile surface modification.

Endothelial cell seeding constitutes an appreciated method to improve blood compatibility of small-diameter vascular grafts. In this study, we report the development of a simple innovative technique based on multilayered polyelectrolyte films as cell adhesive substrates. Polyelectrolyte multilayered films ending by poly(sodium-4-styrenesulfonate)/poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PSS/PAH) or poly(L-glutamic acid)/poly(D-lysine) (PGA/PDL) could enhance cell adhesion by modification of the physico-chemical properties of the surface. The biological responses of human umbilical vein endothelial cells seeded on the polyelectrolyte multilayer films, on PDL or PAH monolayers, and on control surfaces, were evaluated in terms of initial attachment, growth, cellular metabolic activity, endothelial phenotype, and adhesion. The results showed that polyelectrolyte multilayers neither induce cytotoxic effects nor alter the phenotype of the endothelial cells. The polyelectrolyte multilayered films enhanced initial cell attachment as compared to the polyelectrolyte monolayer. Cell growth observed on the films was similar to that on TCPS. Among the different coating tested, the film ending by PSS/PAH exhibited an excellent cellular biocompatibility and appeared to be the most interesting surface in terms of cellular adhesion and growth. Such films could be used to cover hydrophobic (cell resistant) substrates in order to promote cell colonization, thereby constituting an excellent material for endothelial cell seeding.

Polyelectrolyte multilayer films with pegylated polypeptides as a new type of anti-microbial protection for biomaterials.

Adhesion of bacteria at the surface of implanted materials is the first step in microbial infection, leading to post-surgical complications. In order to reduce this adhesion, we show that poly(L-lysine)/poly(L-glutamic acid) (PLL/PGA) multilayers ending by several PLL/PGA-g-PEG bilayers can be used, PGA-g-PEG corresponding to PGA grafted by poly(ethylene glycol). Streaming potential and quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation measurements were used to characterize the buildup of these films. The multilayer films terminated by PGA and PGA-g-PEG were found to adsorb an extremely small amount of serum proteins as compared to a bare silica surface but the PGA ending films do not reduce bacterial adhesion. On the other hand, the adhesion of Escherichia coli bacteria is reduced by 72% on films ending by one (PLL/PGA-g-PEG) bilayer and by 92% for films ending by three (PLL/PGA-g-PEG) bilayers compared to bare substrate. Thus, our results show the ability of PGA-g-PEG to be inserted into multilayer films and to drastically reduce both protein adsorption and bacterial adhesion. This kind of anti-adhesive films represents a new and very simple method to coat any type of biomaterials for protection against bacterial adhesion and therefore limiting its pathological consequences.

Biological apatite crystal disolution.

The dissolution curves of human acid-treated enamel powder are characterized by a rapid initial step followed, after 10 or 15 minutes, by a second stage, with release of very small amounts of calcium. Increase in pH and addition of fluoride ions tend to diminish, for short intervals, the amount of dissolved apatites. For higher pH values the decrease is noted over a longer time. Study of the relative ionic variation of human enamel powder from young and adult patients subjected to acid requires infra-red vibration band analyses. Special attention was given to the absorptions at 610 cm-1 (phosphate groups), 880 cm-1 (CO32- in OH- sites and HPO42-), 1410 cm-1 (CO32- in phosphate sites) and 1550 cm-1 (CO32- in OH- position). All results were related to vibration band at 610 cm-1. A preferential loss of carbonates in the two possible sites was always observed for 10 or 15 minutes, followed by a high release of phosphate. The increase of pH or small amounts of fluoride displaced the preferential carbonate loss to longer times. In the presence of higher fluoride levels a disappearance of the preferential loss of carbonates was noted. A continuous increase of HPO42- in the absence of fluoride occurred; however a straight line with a smaller shape was present, with fluoride addition.

HRTEM study of biological crystal growth mechanisms in the vicinity of implanted synthetic hydroxyapatite crystals.

Calcium phosphates are widely used as biomaterials. Ultrastructural assessments are of the utmost importance in our understanding of interfacial phenomena. The aim of this study was to learn more about the newly formed crystal growth mechanisms. The interfaces between implanted synthetic hydroxyapatite crystals (HAS) and newly formed crystallites were thoroughly examined on a molecular level. The bone-grafting material (HAS) was implanted into two adult patients, and small biopsies were recovered 6 months after implantation. The raw biomaterial was analyzed by x-ray diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Six months after their implantation, the HAS aggregates were surrounded by a mineralized bone matrix. Tiny crystallites also filled the spaces between the HAS crystals within the aggregates. These newly formed crystallites growing at the surfaces of the implanted HAS crystals appeared to be apatitic. The crystallographic investigations of the nucleation and growing mechanisms of the newly formed crystallites were performed by HRTEM in association with computer simulation and mathematical processing of digitized images. A relationship was noted between the orientation axes of crystallites growing nearby and the zone axes of the implanted HAS, thus strongly suggesting a guiding or substratum role of the HAS particles.

Tooth ultrastructure of late triassic Haramiyidae.

Six molars of Haramiyidae from the French lower Rhaetic were examined by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and by electron diffraction. Typical polished wear facets were located on the tops and on the occlusal bases of cuspids. Enamel was found to have had a structural pattern defined as "pre-prismatic", consisting of a repetitive pinnate orientation of the c-axes of apatite crystallites but without interprismatic material. Peritubular dentin was not found, but hydroxyapatite deposition in the dentinal tubular lumens was observed, whereas typical denticles with dentinal tubules and hydroxyapatite deposits were located in the pulp chambers. Taken together, these different features are strongly indicative of mastication, and hence enforce the suspected mammalian status of the Haramiyidae.

High resolution electron microscopy: structure and growth mechanisms of human dentin crystals.

Biological crystal formation was postulated to begin by a nucleation process. Such processes have been demonstrated for human amelogenesis and bone mineralization. The aim of this study was to confirm if such mechanisms occur during dentin crystal formation. The structure of human fetal dentin crystals and the earliest stages of mineral growth were followed by High Resolution Electron Microscopy (HREM) associated with digitalized image analysis. Micrographs of the mineralization front were first digitalized, and selected areas were transformed in the reciprocal space by Fast Fourier Transform. The resulting diffractograms were compared with computer-simulated diffractograms and used to determine the orientation of crystals. Dentin crystals, found close to the mineralization front, show a structure closely related to that of hydroxyapatite (HA), as determined by comparison of HREM images with simulated images. These crystals present numerous structural defects such as dislocations and grain boundaries. These defects appear to be present in dentin crystals at an early stage of growth. We have also observed nanometer-sized particles in mineralization areas. Calculated diffractograms of these areas show significant similarities with HA diffraction patterns, and in one case, their structure could be correlated to HA structure through an image simulation process. These nanometer-sized particles could be related to the nucleation process, and their growth, orientation, and formation appear to be mediated by extracellular matrix components.

HREM study of irradiation damage in human dental enamel crystals.

Several phenomena have been observed during the examination of human dental enamel crystals (mainly constituted by hydroxyapatite (OHAP] by high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM) at 300 and 400 keV: orientation-dependent damage in the form of mass loss from voids or uniform destruction of crystal structure, beam-induced diffusion creating outgrowths at the crystal surfaces, recrystallization of the bulk crystal and crystallization of the inorganic components of the matrix surrounding the crystals. These beam-induced crystals have the CaO structure. The phenomena observed are most likely due to various electron-crystal interaction mechanisms (ballistic knock-on damage, electronic excitations, temperature rise, etc.). In this paper, the contribution of the ballistic process to the phenomena observed is discussed. The quantitative description of the knock-on collisions rests on the McKinley-Feshbach cross-section formula. The minimum ion displacement energies which appear in this expression have been estimated on the basis of the electrostatic ion binding energies, and the covalent bond energies if required. It is shown that hydroxyl, calcium and oxygen ions can effectively be displaced by the incident 300 and 400 keV electrons. Thus, the formation of CaO crystals by the combination of calcium and oxygen ions diffusing from their initial sites inside the OHAP lattice can tentatively be explained.

Semi-automatized processing of AFM force-spectroscopy data.

Atomic force microscopy operated in the force-spectroscopy mode is now a widespread technique, often used to investigate ligand-receptor interactions with the goal of measuring forces at the individual molecule level. However, in an experiment, the simultaneous interaction of several ligand/receptor pairs cannot be excluded. This may produce complicated force curves, although unambiguous ruptures are sometimes observed. In the case of the non-specific adhesion of molecules, such as fibrinogen, to a surface, it is usually difficult to identify the real events on the force curves. This can render the application of fixed rules uneasy and in addition can introduce some degree of arbitrariness if the analysis has to be performed by hand. In the present paper a computer algorithm, aimed at speeding up the processing, and at applying selection rules in a reproducible manner, is proposed. It is applied to force recordings performed at various retraction velocities, thus various loading rates. The influence on the evaluation of the rupture forces of the different parameters that can be set by the operator is discussed.

Compositional variations in apatites with respect to preferential ionic extraction.

Detection of ionic losses from the apatitic structure (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) by high-resolution electron microscopy was investigated theoretically. Linear image analysis showed the need for an objective aperture of at least 3.7 nm-1 to visualize four different coordinates (CaII, OH-, P and mid-point between CaII-P bond). High-resolution image analysis and plotting of OH- column intensity against specimen thickness showed an inverse proportionality between composition and OH- image intensities for very thin specimens (less than 2 nm). Image intensity variation would be detectable experimentally, but the preparation of such thin specimens by ultramicrotomy is impossible.