Effects of Dual Task Training on Dual Task Gait Performance and Cognitive Function in Individuals With Parkinson Disease: A Meta-analysis and Meta-regression.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the effects of dual task (DT) training on DT gait performance and cognitive function in individuals with Parkinson disease (PD) and to examine factors that might influence the effects of DT training. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, Wiley Online Library, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, and Medline were searched for articles published from January 2006 to December 2021. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized controlled trials comparing DT training with usual care or general exercise were included. DATA EXTRACTION: The outcomes studied were DT gait parameters including speed, step and stride length, cadence, step and stride time variability, dual-task cost on gait speed, and Trail Making Tests presented as standardized mean differences (SMDs). The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation was used to evaluate the quality of evidence. DATA SYNTHESIS: Ten randomized controlled trials with 466 participants were included in the meta-analysis. The included studies presented, in general, with a low to high risk of bias. Meta-analyses used a random-effects model for all analyses. The meta-analysis showed the DT training effects on DT gait speed (SMD=0.825, P=.012), DT step and stride length (SMD=0.400, P=.015), Trail Making Tests-part A (TMT-A; SMD=0.533, P=.010), and Trail Making Tests-part B (SMD=0.516, P=.012) compared with the control group. Only the effect on TMT-A was maintained at the follow-up assessment. The results of meta-regression showed that participants with slower initial single task gait speed improved more after DT training on DT step and stride length. CONCLUSIONS: The DT training improved more in DT gait speed with moderate-quality evidence as compared with usual care or conventional physical training in individuals with PD. The beneficial effects of DT training on DT step and stride length, attention, and executive function were also demonstrated in this meta-analysis. Furthermore, the improvement in the DT walking step and stride length was related to the participant's initial single task gait speed.

Comparing different montages of transcranial direct current stimulation on dual-task walking and cortical activity in chronic stroke: double-blinded randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation to modulate cortical activity for improving motor function. However, the different tDCS applications for modulating cortical activity and dual task gait performance in chronic stroke have not yet been investigated. This study investigated the effects of different tDCS applications on dual task gait performance and contralesional M1 activation in chronic stroke. METHODS: Forty-eight participants were randomized to anodal, bilateral, cathodal, and sham tDCS groups. Each group received 20 min of tDCS stimulation, except the sham group. Gait performance was measured by GaitRite system during cognitive dual task (CDT) walking, motor dual task (MDT) walking, and single walking (SW). Contralesional M1 activity of unaffected tibialis anterior (TA) was measured using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Intragroup difference was analyzed by Wilconxon sign ranks test with Bonferroni correction, and Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks was used for intergroup comparisons, followed by post-hoc Mann-Whitney U tests with Bonferroni correction. RESULTS: The bilateral tDCS (p = 0.017) and cathodal tDCS (p = 0.010) improved the CDT walking speed more than sham group. The bilateral tDCS (p = 0.048) and cathodal tDCS (p = 0.048) also improved the MDT walking speed more than sham group. Furthermore, bilateral tDCS (p = 0.012) and cathodal tDCS (p = 0.040) increased the silent period (SP) more than the anodal and sham group. Thus, one-session of bilateral and cathodal tDCS improved dual task walking performance paralleled with increasing contralesional corticomotor inhibition in chronic stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that one-session of bilateral and cathodal tDCS increased contralesional corticomotor inhibition and improved dual task gait performance in chronic stroke. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20180116001). Registered prospectively on 16th Jan, 2018 at http://www.thaiclinicaltrials.org .

Multiarea Brain Activation and Gait Deterioration During a Cognitive and Motor Dual Task in Individuals With Parkinson Disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In people with Parkinson disease (PD), gait performance deteriorating during dual-task walking has been noted in previous studies. However, the effects of different types of dual tasks on gait performance and brain activation are still unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate cognitive and motor dual-task walking performance on multiarea brain activity in individuals with PD. METHODS: Twenty-eight participants with PD were recruited and performed single walking (SW), walking while performing a cognitive task (WCT), and walking while performing a motor task (WMT) at their self-selected speed. Gait performance including walking speed, stride length, stride time, swing cycle, temporal and spatial variability, and dual-task cost (DTC) was recorded. Brain activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), premotor cortex (PMC), and supplementary motor areas (SMA) were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy during walking. RESULTS: Walking performance deteriorated upon performing a secondary task, especially the cognitive task. Also, a higher and more sustained activation in the PMC and SMA during WCT, as compared with the WMT and SW, in the late phase of walking was found. During WMT, however, the SMA and PMC did not show increased activation compared with during SW. Moreover, gait performance was negatively correlated with PMC and SMA activity during different walking tasks. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with mild to moderate PD demonstrated gait deterioration during dual-task walking, especially during WCT. The SMA and PMC were further activated in individuals with PD when performing cognitive dual-task walking.Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A383 ).

The SDF1-CXCR4 Axis Is Involved in the Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy-Mediated Neuronal Cells Migration in Transient Brain Ischemic Rats.

Neurogenesis is a physiological response after cerebral ischemic injury to possibly repair the damaged neural network. Therefore, promoting neurogenesis is very important for functional recovery after cerebral ischemic injury. Our previous research indicated that hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) exerted neuroprotective effects, such as reducing cerebral infarction volume. The purposes of this study were to further explore the effects of HBOT on the neurogenesis and the expressions of cell migration factors, including the stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF1) and its target receptor, the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4). Thirty-two Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into the control or HBO group after receiving transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). HBOT began to intervene 24 h after MCAO under the pressure of 3 atmospheres for one hour per day for 21 days. Rats in the control group were placed in the same acrylic box without HBOT during the experiment. After the final intervention, half of the rats in each group were cardio-perfused with ice-cold saline followed by 4% paraformaldehyde under anesthesia. The brains were removed, dehydrated and cut into serial 20µm coronal sections for immunofluorescence staining to detect the markers of newborn cell (BrdU+), mature neuron cell (NeuN+), SDF1, and CXCR4. The affected motor cortex of the other half rats in each group was separated under anesthesia and used to detect the expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), SDF1, and CXCR4. Motor function was tested by a ladder-climbing test before and after the experiment. HBOT significantly enhanced neurogenesis in the penumbra area and promoted the expressions of SDF1 and CXCR4. The numbers of BrdU+/SDF1+, BrdU+/CXCR4+, and BrdU+/NeuN+ cells and BDNF concentrations in the penumbra were all significantly increased in the HBO group when compared with the control group. The motor functions were improved in both groups, but there was a significant difference between groups in the post-test. Our results indicated that HBOT for 21 days enhanced neurogenesis and promoted cell migration toward the penumbra area in transient brain ischemic rats. HBOT also increased BDNF expression, which might further promote the reconstructions of the impaired neural networks and restore motor function.

Effects of square-stepping exercise on executive function in individuals with Parkinson's disease: A randomized controlled pilot study.

With the aging population, the incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD) increases over time. In this study, a popular and interesting exercise called the square-stepping exercise (SSE) was chosen as an intervention for people with PD. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of SSE on cognitive function, especially executive function. Twenty-eight participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the experimental group (n=14) or the control group (n=14). The duration of the intervention for both groups was 8 weeks, twice a week. The outcomes, including the trail making test, the digit span task, the Montreal cognitive assessment, and the Parkinson's disease questionnaire, were evaluated before the intervention, after the intervention, and at 1-month follow-up. The results showed that executive function improved significantly on the digit span task after SSE training. Consequently, SSE could be an effective intervention to improve executive function in people with PD.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation followed by exercise on neuropathic pain in chronic spinal cord injury: a double-blinded randomized controlled pilot trial.

STUDY DESIGN: Double-blinded randomized controlled pilot trial. OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed to investigate the effects of multiple sessions of tDCS followed by exercise on neuropathic pain and brain activity in individuals with chronic SCI. SETTING: Rehabilitation center in Taipei, Taiwan. METHODS: Twelve individuals with neuropathic pain after SCI were randomized into the experimental (real) or control (sham) tDCS group. All participants received 12 sessions of real or sham tDCS, and moderate upper body exercises over 4-6 weeks. Pain intensity, characters of pain, self-rating change of pain, brain activity, and quality of life were assessed at pre, posttest, and 4-week follow-up. RESULTS: The between-group differences (95% CI) of pain intensity at posttest and at 4-week follow-up were -2.2/10 points (-3.0 to 1.0, p = 0.060) and -2.0/10 points (-5.0 to -0.4, p = 0.035), respectively. The between-group differences of paresthesia/dysesthesia pain character were -2.0/10 points (-3.2 to 1.0, p = 0.053) at posttest and -2.3/10 points (-5.0 to 2.5, p = 0.054) at follow-up. No significant changes in brain activity and quality of life were noted at post-intervention and follow-up in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: The multiple sessions of anodal tDCS combined with moderate upper body exercise were feasible for individuals with neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. However, the analgesic effect was not superior to exercise alone after 12 sessions of intervention, and the beneficial effect was observed at 4-week follow-up.

Effects of square-stepping exercise on motor and cognitive function in older adults - A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To document the effects of square-stepping exercise (SSE) on motor and cognitive function in older adults. METHODS: Five online databases were searched in May 2021. Controlled studies published from 2006 to May 2021 were included. The experimental group received SSE alone or SSE combined with other exercise(s), whereas the control group received no training or other exercise(s). Motor and cognitive outcomes included balance, fall risk, agility, endurance, gait speed, flexibility, muscle strength, reaction time, global cognitive function, memory, and executive function. RESULTS: Ten articles with a total of 920 participants were included. Static balance (p=0.0009), dynamic balance (p=0.0008), fall risk (p<0.00001), and agility (p=0.02) improved more in the intervention group than in the control group. However, SSE did not seem to exert beneficial effects on cognitive function. CONCLUSION: In older adults, SSE provided beneficial effects on motor function, including static and dynamic balance, risk of falls, and agility. However, positive effects on cognitive function were not observed and require further investigation.

Feasibility and effectiveness of interactive stepping exercise on community-dwelling older adults: A pilot randomized controlled trial.

Recently, the interactive stepping exercise (ISE) was developed on the basis of square stepping exercise. The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility and effectiveness of ISE on executive function and gait variability among community-dwelling older adults. Fourteen participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the experimental group (n=7) or control group (n=7) and received ISE or home exercise program, respectively, three times a week for 12 weeks. The outcomes included retention rate, attendance rate, Trail Making Test, and dual-task walking. The results showed that participants had high retention and attendance rate for the ISE intervention. Moreover, significant improvement in the part A of Trail Making Test and stride length variability during cognitive dual-task walking after 12-week ISE intervention. The current results suggested that ISE is a feasible and effective intervention on executive function and gait variability in community-dwelling older adults.

Muscle activation and intermuscular coherence during forward and backward pedaling.

The purpose of this study was to investigate muscle activity and intermuscular coherence of the rectus femoris (RF) and biceps femoris (BF) during forward (FW) and backward (BW) pedaling. Sixteen healthy volunteers performed FW and BW pedaling in 30, 45, and 60 revolutions per minute (RPM), while electromyographic (EMG) signals of the RF and BF were recorded bilaterally to determine integral EMG and intermuscular coherence. BW pedaling showed a statistically significant larger EMG activity on the left BF (P = 0.023) in 30 RPM; on the left BF (P = 0.01), right BF (P = 0.05), and right RF (P = 0.006) in 45 RPM, and on the left BF (P = 0.014) and right RF (P = 0.011) in 60 RPM than FW pedaling. In 45 RPM, higher coherence was demonstrated on the left leg (P = 0.011) during the left flexor and right extensor phases and on the right leg (P = 0.043) during the right flexor and left extensor phases in BW compared with FW pedaling. In 60 RPM, higher coherence was observed on both legs (left, P = 0.037; right, P < 0.001) during the left flexor and right extensor phases in BW compared with FW pedaling. Our results suggest that BW pedaling increased the muscle activity of both biarticular muscles and intermuscular coherence.

Novel gait training alters functional brain connectivity during walking in chronic stroke patients: a randomized controlled pilot trial.

BACKGROUND: A recent study has demonstrated that a turning-based treadmill program yields greater improvements in gait speed and temporal symmetry than regular treadmill training in chronic stroke patients. However, it remains unknown how this novel and challenging gait training shapes the cortico-cortical network and cortico-spinal network during walking in chronic stroke patients. The purpose of this study was to examine how a novel type of gait training, which is an unfamiliar but effective task for people with chronic stroke, enhances brain reorganization. METHODS: Subjects in the experimental and control groups received 30 min of turning-based treadmill training and regular treadmill training, respectively. Cortico-cortical connectivity and cortico-muscular connectivity during walking and gait performance were assessed before and after completing the 12-session training. RESULTS: Eighteen subjects (n = 9 per group) with a mean age of 52.5 ± 9.7 years and an overground walking speed of 0.61 ± 0.26 m/s consented and participated in this study. There were significant group by time interactions for gait speed, temporal gait symmetry, and cortico-cortical connectivity as well as cortico-muscular connectivity in walk-related frequency (24-40 Hz) over the frontal-central-parietal areas. Compared with the regular treadmill training, the turning-based treadmill training resulted in greater improvements in these measures. Moreover, the increases in cortico-cortical connectivity and cortico-muscular connectivity while walking were associated with improvements in temporal gait symmetry. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest this novel turning-based treadmill training is effective for enhancing brain functional reorganization underlying cortico-cortical and corticomuscular mechanisms and thus may result in gait improvement in people with chronic stroke. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ACTRN12617000190303 . Registered 3 February 2017, retrospectively registered.

Facilitation of the Lesioned Motor Cortex During Tonic Contraction of the Unaffected Limb Corresponds to Motor Status After Stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Contraction of the muscles of the unaffected hand is associated with enhanced activation of lesioned motor cortex (ie, crossed facilitation) in some individuals after stroke. However, the association between crossed facilitation and motor function status remains unclear. We investigated whether existence of crossed facilitation corresponds to motor status of the affected upper limb after stroke. METHODS: Data were collected from 58 participants with unilateral stroke. The Fugl-Meyer assessment of upper extremity (FMA-UE) was used to evaluate motor status. Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were elicited from the abductor pollicis brevis (ABP) of the affected side under 3 conditions: rest, tonic contraction of the ABP of the unaffected side, or tonic contraction of the tibialis anterior of the unaffected side. RESULTS: In 28 of the 58 participants, MEPs could be elicited from the affected ABP at rest; these participants also exhibited crossed facilitation during contraction on the unaffected side. Participants with MEPs at rest exhibited higher FMA-UE scores (53.04 ± 2.59) compared with participants with absent MEP (19.83 ± 1.60; Z = -6.21). Seven participants with no MEPs at rest had MEPs with crossed facilitation; their FMA-UE scores were higher compared with the 23 who had no ABP MEP under any condition (Z = -2.66). FMA-UE scores were positively correlated with the amount of crossed facilitation during the APB task (r = 0.68) and the tibialis anterior task (r = 0.54). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: In some participants, MEPs in the affected hand muscle were enhanced by tonic contraction of the muscles on the unaffected side even if no MEP could be evoked at rest. The degree of crossed facilitation in the affected hand muscle was correlated with the level of motor function of the affected upper limb, and the FMA-UE score could classify the presence/absence of crossed facilitation.Video abstract available for more insights from the authors (Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A117).

Effects of a balance-based exergaming intervention using the Kinect sensor on posture stability in individuals with Parkinson's disease: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The present study examined the effects of a balance-based exergaming intervention using the Kinect sensor on postural stability and balance in people with Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS: We conducted a subject-blinded, randomized controlled study. Twenty people with PD (Hoehn and Yahr stages I through III) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a balance-based exergaming group (N = 10) or a balance training group (N = 10) for an 8-week balance training period. Postural stability was assessed using the limits of stability (LOS) and one-leg stance (OLS) tests. Balance was assessed using the Berg Balance Scale (BBS) and the timed up and go (TUG) test. Participants were assessed pre- and post-training. RESULTS: After training, participants in the balance-based exergaming group showed significant improvements in LOS performance, and in the eyes-closed condition of the OLS test. Both training programs led to improvements in BBS and TUG performance. Furthermore, balance-based exergaming training resulted in significantly better performance in directional control in the LOS test (78.9 ± 7.65 %) compared with conventional balance training (70.6 ± 9.37 %). CONCLUSIONS: Balance-based exergaming training resulted in a greater improvement in postural stability compared with conventional balance training. Our results support the therapeutic use of exergaming aided by the Kinect sensor in people with PD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov. NCT02671396.

Effects of interactive visual feedback training on post-stroke pusher syndrome: a pilot randomized controlled study.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effects of a computer-generated interactive visual feedback training program on the recovery from pusher syndrome in stroke patients. DESIGN: Assessor-blinded, pilot randomized controlled study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 12 stroke patients with pusher syndrome were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (N = 7, computer-generated interactive visual feedback training) or control group (N = 5, mirror visual feedback training). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The scale for contraversive pushing for severity of pusher syndrome, the Berg Balance Scale for balance performance, and the Fugl-Meyer assessment scale for motor control were the outcome measures. Patients were assessed pre- and posttraining. RESULTS: A comparison of pre- and posttraining assessment results revealed that both training programs led to the following significant changes: decreased severity of pusher syndrome scores (decreases of 4.0 ± 1.1 and 1.4 ± 1.0 in the experimental and control groups, respectively); improved balance scores (increases of 14.7 ± 4.3 and 7.2 ± 1.6 in the experimental and control groups, respectively); and higher scores for lower extremity motor control (increases of 8.4 ± 2.2 and 5.6 ± 3.3 in the experimental and control groups, respectively). Furthermore, the computer-generated interactive visual feedback training program produced significantly better outcomes in the improvement of pusher syndrome (p < 0.01) and balance (p < 0.05) compared with the mirror visual feedback training program. CONCLUSIONS: Although both training programs were beneficial, the computer-generated interactive visual feedback training program more effectively aided recovery from pusher syndrome compared with mirror visual feedback training.

Electromyography of symmetrical trunk movements and trunk position sense in chronic stroke patients.

[Purpose] To explore the differences in bilateral trunk muscle activation between chronic stroke patients and healthy controls, this study investigated the symmetry index and cross-correlation of trunk muscles during trunk flexion and extension movements. This study also assessed the differences in trunk reposition error between groups and the association between trunk reposition error and bilateral trunk muscle activation. [Subjects and Methods] Fifteen stroke patients and 15 age- and gender-matched healthy subjects participated. Bilateral trunk muscle activations were collected by electromyography during trunk flexion and extension. Trunk reposition errors in trunk flexion and extension directions were recorded by a Qualisys motion capture system. [Results] Compared with the healthy controls, the stroke patients presented lower symmetrical muscle activation of the bilateral internal oblique and lower cross-correlation of abdominal muscles during trunk flexion, and lower symmetry index and cross-correlation of erector spinae in trunk extension. They also showed a larger trunk extension reposition error. A smaller trunk reposition error was associated with higher cross-correlation of bilateral trunk muscles during trunk movements in all subjects. [Conclusion] Trunk muscle function during symmetrical trunk movements and trunk reposition sense were impaired in the chronic stroke patients, and trunk position sense was associated with trunk muscle functions. Future studies should pay attention to symmetrical trunk movements as well as trunk extension position sense for patients with chronic stroke.

Relationship between trunk stability during voluntary limb and trunk movements and clinical measurements of patients with chronic stroke.

[Purpose] The purposes of this study were to investigate differences between patients with chronic stroke and age matched healthy controls in trunk stability, by assessing the kinematics of the center of mass and moving body segments during voluntary limb and trunk movement, and the relationship between trunk stability and clinical measurements. [Subjects and Methods] Fifteen stroke patients and 15 age- and gender-matched healthy subjects participated. Each subject performed flexion of the hip and shoulder of the non-paretic or matched side as fast as possible, as well as trunk flexion and extension at a self-selected speed. A Qualisys motion system was employed to track the kinematics of the trunk and limbs. [Results] Patients presented larger mediolateral displacement of the center of mass during all limb and trunk movements, and larger velocity of center of mass during hip flexion movement. Healthy subjects showed greater movement velocity during shoulder flexion, trunk flexion and extension. Patients' clinical measurements only correlated with movement characteristics during voluntary trunk motions. [Conclusion] Trunk stability in patients with chronic stroke was compromised during voluntary trunk as well as non-paretic limb movements, and the voluntary trunk movements reflected the trunk deficits measured using clinical measurements. Rehabilitation of patients with chronic stroke should include programs to improve trunk stability.

Neuromuscular and biomechanical strategies of turning in ambulatory individuals post-stroke.

Given that the inter-limb asymmetry and additional balance control are required for turning, stroke subjects spend more time to turn than healthy subjects. Few studies have investigated specific turning-related neuromuscular and biomechanical strategies post-stroke to clarify factors favoring or hindering turning speed toward different directions. The purpose of this study was to compare the speed and lower-limb muscular and kinematic strategies of turning between individuals with stroke and matched controls. Fifteen ambulatory individuals with chronic stroke and 15 matched healthy controls participated in this study. Turning speed during turning along a 0.8-meter radius curved path toward both sides for 5 meters was recorded. Simultaneously, kinematics and muscle activation patterns of lower extremity were measured by the joint angle and electromyography during turning. The slower speed was noted for the turning task in stroke patients when compared to controls. Individuals with stroke have insufficient muscle activation in tibialis anterior and biceps femoris of the affected inner leg, accompanied by reduced standing knee flexion, which disturb turning toward the affected side. The augmented standing knee flexion of unaffected side in stroke patients hindered the function of the outer leg while turning toward the affected side, but assisted the role of the inner leg while turning toward the unaffected side. However, the absence of difference in turning speeds toward the affected and unaffected sides may attribute to the diminished swing phase knee flexion of the affected outer leg. Our findings suggest that there are direction-related strategies in turning for stroke subjects since the inner and outer legs, respectively, have specific roles for standing support and leg swing during turning. Therefore, in addition to turning speed, kinematics and muscular components during turning toward either direction should be considered to improve turning performance as well as to prevent falls in stroke rehabilitation.

Effects of physical training on depression and related quality of life in pre-frail and frail older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of physical training on depression and related quality of life in pre-frail and frail individuals. DESIGN: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PARTICIPANTS: Pre-frail and frail older adults. METHODS: Five electronic databases, including PubMed, Cochrane, Medline, CINAHL, and Wiley were searched through December 2023. Randomized controlled trials (RCT) comparing physical training with usual care, health education, or light-intensity exercise were included. Outcomes included depression and depression-related quality of life. The quality of the included studies was assessed using Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) score, and the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool was used to assess the risk of bias. Meta-analysis was performed using the RevMan5.4. The certainty of the evidence was evaluated by The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. RESULTS: Ten articles with 589 participants met the inclusion criteria and were included. The pooled analysis indicated that depression (SMD = -0.55, 95%CI = -0.92, -0.17, p = 0.004) and mental health status in life (SMD = 1.05, 95%CI = 0.59, 1.50, p < 0.00001) improved significantly in the experimental group. The results of subgroup analysis revealed that the beneficial effects of physical training were significant only in frail older adults but not in pre-frail older adults. CONCLUSION: This meta-analysis showed that the positive effects of physical training on depression and related quality of life were evident for people with frailty. However, no positive results were observed in pre-frail older adults, indicating the need for further investigation in this subgroup.

Prefrontal activity and heart rate variability during cognitive tasks may show different changes in young and older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment.

Background: Age-related decline in cognitive function is often linked to changed prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity and heart rate variability (HRV). Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia, might have further degeneration beyond aging. This study aimed to investigate the differences between young and older adults with or without MCI in cognitive functions, task-induced PFC activation and HRV changes. Methods: Thirty-one healthy young adults (YA), 44 older adults (OA), and 28 older adults with MCI (OA-MCI) were enrolled and compared in this cross-sectional study. Each participant received a one-time assessment including cognitive and executive functions, as well as the simultaneous recording of PFC activity and HRV during a cognitive task paradigm. Results: We observed age-related decrease in global cognitive functions, executive functions, HRV, and increase in PFC activity. The MCI further deteriorated the global cognitive and executive performances, but not the HRV or the prefrontal activation. Conclusion: Older people showed lower performances in general cognitive function and executive function, compensatory increase of PFC activity, and reduced HRV. Older people with MCI had further deterioration in cognitive performance, but not in PFC activation and HRV.

Effects of motor and cognitive complex training on obstacle walking and brain activity in people with Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The difficulties in obstacle walking are significant in people with Parkinson's disease (PD) leading to an increased fall risk. Effective interventions to improve obstacle walking with possible training-related neuroplasticity changes are needed. We developed two different exercise programs, complex walking training and motor-cognitive training, both challenging motor and cognitive function for people with PD to improve obstacle walking. AIM: To investigate the effects of these two novel training programs on obstacle walking and brain activities in PD. DESIGN: A single-center randomized, single-blind controlled study. SETTING: University laboratory; outpatient. POPULATION: Individuals with idiopathic PD. METHODS: Thirty-two participants were randomly assigned to the complex walking training group (N.=11), motor-cognitive training group (N.=11) or control group (N.=10). Participants in training groups received exercises for 40 minutes/session, with a total of 12-session over 6 weeks. Control group did not receive additional training. Primary outcomes included obstacle walking, and brain activities (prefrontal cortex (PFC), premotor cortex (PMC), and supplementary motor area (SMA)) during obstacle walking by using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Secondary outcomes included obstacle crossing, timed up and go test (TUG), cognitive function in different domains, and fall efficacy scale (FES-I). RESULTS: The motor-cognitive training group demonstrated greater improvements in obstacle walking speed and stride length, SMA activity, obstacle crossing velocity and stride length, digit span test, and TUG than the control group. The complex walking training did not show significant improvement in obstacle walking or change in brain activation compared with control group. However, the complex walking training resulted in greater improvements in Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, TUG and FES-I compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Our 12-session of the cognitive-motor training improved obstacle walking performance with increased SMA activities in people with PD. However, the complex walking training did not lead such beneficial effects as the cognitive-motor training. CLINICAL REHABILITATION IMPACT: The cognitive-motor training is suggested as an effective rehabilitation program to improve obstacle walking ability in individuals with PD.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Followed by Treadmill Training on Dual-Task Walking and Cortical Activity in Chronic Stroke: A Double-Blinded Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation followed by treadmill training on dual-task gait performance and contralesional cortical activity in chronic stroke patients. METHODS: Forty-five chronic stroke participants were randomized into 3 groups: a bilateral transcranial direct current stimulation and treadmill training group; a cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation and treadmill training group; and a sham transcranial direct current stimulation and treadmill training group for 50 min per session (20 min transcranial direct current stimulation followed by 30 min treadmill training), 3 sessions per week for 4 weeks. Outcome measures included cognitive dual-task walking, motor dual-task walking, walking performance, contralesional cortical activity, and lower-extremity motor control. RESULTS: The cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation + treadmill training group showed significantly greater improvements in cognitive dual-task walking speed than the other groups (p cathodal vs sham = 0.006, p cathodal vs bilateral = 0.016). In the cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation + treadmill training group the silent period duration increased significantly more than in the other groups (p < 0.05). Changes in motor evoked potentials in the cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation + treadmill training group were greater than those in the sham transcranial direct current stimulation + treadmill training group (p < 0.05). No significant changes were observed in the bilateral transcranial direct current stimulation + treadmill training group. CONCLUSION: Cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation followed by treadmill training is an effective intervention for improving cognitive dual-task walking and modulating contralesional cortical activity in chronic stroke. No beneficial effects were observed after bilateral transcranial direct current stimulation and treadmill training.