Ruscogenin Exerts Anxiolytic-Like Effect via Microglial NF-κB/MAPKs/NLRP3 Signaling Pathways in Mouse Model of Chronic Inflammatory Pain.

Long-term inflammation can cause chronic pain and trigger patients' anxiety by sensitizing the central nervous system. However, effective drugs with few side effects for treating chronic pain-induced anxiety are still lacking. The anxiolytic and anti-inflammatory effects of ruscogenin (RUS), an important active compound in Ophiopogon japonicus, were evaluated in a mouse model of chronic inflammatory pain and N9 cells. RUS (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg/day, i.g.) was administered once daily for 7 days after CFA injection; pain- and anxiety-like behaviors were assessed in mice. Anti-inflammatory effect of RUS (0.1, 1, 10 µM) on N9 microglia after LPS treatment was evaluated. Inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, CD86, IL-4, ARG-1, and CD206) were measured using qPCR. The levels of IBA1, ROS, NF-κB, TLR4, P-IKK, P-IκBα, and P65, MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and P38), NLRP3 (caspase-1, ASC, and NLRP3) were detected by Western blotting or immunofluorescence staining. The potential target of RUS was validated by molecular docking and adeno-associated virus injection. Mice in CFA group exhibited allodynia and anxiety-like behaviors. LPS induced neuroinflammation in N9 cells. Both CFA and LPS increased the levels of IBA1, ROS, and inflammatory markers. RUS (10 mg/kg in vivo and 1 µM in vitro) alleviated these alterations through NF-κB/MAPKs/NLRP3 signaling pathways but had no effect on pain hypersensitivity. TLR4 strongly interacted with RUS, and TLR4 overexpression abolished the effects of RUS on anxiety and neuroinflammation. RUS exerts anti-inflammatory and anxiolytic effects via TLR4-mediated NF-κB/MAPKs/NLRP3 signaling pathways, which provides a basis for the treatment of chronic pain-induced anxiety.

Tanshinone IIA improves contextual fear- and anxiety-like behaviors in mice via the CREB/BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most common psychiatric diseases, which is characterized by the typical symptoms such as re-experience, avoidance, and hyperarousal. However, there are few drugs for PTSD treatment. In this study, conditioned fear and single-prolonged stress were employed to establish PTSD mouse model, and we investigated the effects of Tanshinone IIA (TanIIA), a natural product isolated from traditional Chinese herbal Salvia miltiorrhiza, as well as the underlying mechanisms in mice. The results showed that the double stress exposure induced obvious PTSD-like symptoms, and TanIIA administration significantly decreased freezing time in contextual fear test and relieved anxiety-like behavior in open field and elevated plus maze tests. Moreover, TanIIA increased the spine density and upregulated synaptic plasticity-related proteins as well as activated CREB/BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway in the hippocampus. Blockage of CREB remarkably abolished the effects of TanIIA in PTSD model mice and reversed the upregulations of p-CREB, BDNF, TrkB, and synaptic plasticity-related protein induced by TanIIA. The molecular docking simulation indicated that TanIIA could interact with the CREB-binding protein. These findings indicate that TanIIA ameliorates PTSD-like behaviors in mice by activating the CREB/BDNF/TrkB pathway, which provides a basis for PTSD treatment.

Activation of G protein-coupled receptor 30 protects neurons by regulating autophagy in astrocytes.

Ischemic stroke leads to neuronal damage induced by excitotoxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Astrocytes play diverse roles in stroke and ischemia-induced inflammation, and autophagy is critical for maintaining astrocytic functions. Our previous studies showed that the activation of G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), an estrogen membrane receptor, protected neurons from excitotoxicity. However, the role of astrocytic GPR30 in maintaining autophagy and neuroprotection remained unclear. In this study, we found that the neuroprotection induced by G1 (GPR30 agonist) in wild-type mice after a middle cerebral artery occlusion was completely blocked in GPR30 conventional knockout (KO) mice but partially attenuated in astrocytic or neuronal GPR30 KO mice. In cultured primary astrocytes, glutamate exposure induced astrocyte proliferation and decreased astrocyte autophagy by activating mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and inhibiting p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. G1 treatment restored autophagy to its basal level by regulating the p38 pathway but not the mTOR and JNK signaling pathways. Our findings revealed a key role of GPR30 in neuroprotection via the regulation of astrocyte autophagy and support astrocytic GPR30 as a potential drug target against ischemic brain damage.

Cyclic AMP-dependent positive feedback signaling pathways in the cortex contributes to visceral pain.

Cortical areas including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) play critical roles in different types of chronic pain. Most of previous studies focus on the sensory inputs from somatic areas, and less information about plastic changes in the cortex for visceral pain. In this study, chronic visceral pain animal model was established by injection with zymosan into the colon of adult male C57/BL6 mice. Whole cell patch-clamp recording, behavioral tests, western blot, and Cannulation and ACC microinjection were employed to explore the role of adenylyl cyclase 1 (AC1) in the ACC of C57/BL6 and AC1 knock out mice. Integrative approaches were used to investigate possible changes of neuronal AC1 in the ACC after the injury. We found that AC1, a key enzyme for pain-related cortical plasticity, was significantly increased in the ACC in an animal model of irritable bowel syndrome. Inhibiting AC1 activity by a selective AC1 inhibitor NB001 significantly reduced the up-regulation of AC1 protein in the ACC. Furthermore, we found that AC1 is required for NMDA GluN2B receptor up-regulation and increases of NMDA receptor-mediated currents. These results suggest that AC1 may form a positive regulation in the cortex during chronic visceral pain. Our findings demonstrate that the up-regulation of AC1 protein in the cortex may underlie the pathology of chronic visceral pain; and inhibiting AC1 activity may be beneficial for the treatment of visceral pain.

FMRP acts as a key messenger for visceral pain modulation.

Visceral pain is a common clinical symptom, which is caused by mechanical stretch, spasm, ischemia and inflammation. Fragile X syndrome (FXS) with lack of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) protein is an inherited disorder that is characterized by moderate or severe intellectual and developmental disabilities. Previous studies reported that FXS patients have self-injurious behavior, which may be associated with deficits in nociceptive sensitization. However, the role of FMRP in visceral pain is still unclear. In this study, the FMR1 knock out (KO) mice and SH-SY5Y cell line were employed to demonstrate the role of FMRP in the regulation of visceral pain. The data showed that FMR1 KO mice were insensitive to zymosan treatment. Recording in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a structure involved in pain process, showed less presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic responses in the FMR1 KO mice as compared to the wild type (WT) mice after zymosan injection. Zymosan treatment caused enhancements of adenylyl cyclase 1 (AC1), a pain-related enzyme, and NMDA GluN2B receptor in the ACC. However, these up-regulations were attenuated in the ACC of FMR1 KO mice. Last, we found that zymosan treatment led to increase of FMRP levels in the ACC. These results were further confirmed in SH-SY5Y cells in vitro. Our findings demonstrate that FMRP is required for NMDA GluN2B and AC1 upregulation, and GluN2B/AC1/FMRP forms a positive feedback loop to modulate visceral pain.

Elevated progranulin contributes to synaptic and learning deficit due to loss of fragile X mental retardation protein.

Fragile X syndrome is an inheritable form of intellectual disability caused by loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP, encoded by the FMR1 gene). Absence of FMRP caused overexpression of progranulin (PGRN, encoded by GRN), a putative tumour necrosis factor receptor ligand. In the present study, we found that progranulin mRNA and protein were upregulated in the medial prefrontal cortex of Fmr1 knock-out mice. In Fmr1 knock-out mice, elevated progranulin caused insufficient dendritic spine pruning and late-phase long-term potentiation in the medial prefrontal cortex of Fmr1 knock-out mice. Partial progranulin knock-down restored spine morphology and reversed behavioural deficits, including impaired fear memory, hyperactivity, and motor inflexibility in Fmr1 knock-out mice. Progranulin increased levels of phosphorylated glutamate ionotropic receptor GluA1 and nuclear factor kappa B in cultured wild-type neurons. Tumour necrosis factor receptor 2 antibody perfusion blocked the effects of progranulin on GluA1 phosphorylation; this result indicates that tumour necrosis factor receptor 2 is required for progranulin-mediated GluA1 phosphorylation and late-phase long-term potentiation expression. However, high basal level of progranulin in Fmr1 knock-out mice prevented further facilitation of synaptic plasticity by exogenous progranulin. Partial downregulation of progranulin or tumour necrosis factor receptor 2/nuclear factor kappa B signalling restored synaptic plasticity and memory deficits in Fmr1 knock-out mice. These findings suggest that elevated PGRN is linked to cognitive deficits of fragile X syndrome, and the progranulin/tumour necrosis factor receptor 2 signalling pathway may be a putative therapeutic target for improving cognitive deficits in fragile X syndrome.

Anxiolytic effects of sesamin in mice with chronic inflammatory pain.

OBJECTIVE: Sesamin is known for its role in antioxidant, antiproliferative, antihypertensive, and neuroprotective activities. However, little is known about the role of sesamin in the development of emotional disorders. Here we investigated persistent inflammatory pain hypersensitivity and anxiety-like behaviors in the mouse suffering chronic pain. METHODS: Chronic inflammatory pain was induced by hind paw injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Levels of protein were detected by Western blot. RESULTS: Administration of sesamin could induce anxiolytic activities but had no effect on analgesia. In the basolateral amygdala, a structure involving the anxiety development, sesamin attenuated the up-regulation of NR2B-containing N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, GluR1 subunit of the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor as well as phosphorylation of GluR1 at Ser831 (p-GluR1-Ser831), and Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII-alpha) in the hind paw CFA-injected mice. In the same model, we found that the sesamin blocked the down-regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABAA-alpha-2) receptors. CONCLUSION: Our findings show that sesamin reduces anxiety-like behaviors induced by chronic pain at least partially through regulating the GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission in the amygdala of mice.

Echinocystic acid reduces reserpine-induced pain/depression dyad in mice.

Chronic pain has consistently been correlated with depression. Echinocystic acid (EA), a natural triterpone enriched in various herbs and used for medicinal purpose in many Asian countries, exhibits anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities. However, little is known the effects of EA on the depression. In present study, we investigated the anti-depression activities in the mouse model of reserpine-induced pain-depression dyad. Reserpine (1 mg/kg subcutaneously daily for 3 days) caused significant depression-like behaviors and pain sensation. Subsequent treatment of EA (5 mg/kg intragastrically daily for 5 days) attenuated the reserpine-induced pain/depression dyad as shown by the increase of pain threshold and the behaviors in forced swimming test, tail suspension test, and open field test. Furthermore, treatment of EA reversed the decrease of biogenic amines (norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin) in the brain region of hippocampus, a structure involved in the formation of emotional disorders. Levels of serotonin receptor 5-HT1A were decreased and levels of 5-HT2A were increased in the reserpine-injected mice. Treatment of EA could restore the alterations of serotonin receptors. At the same time, the increase in GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors, p-GluA1-Ser831, PSD-95 and CaMKII were integrated with the increase in caspase-3 and iNOS levels in the hippocampus of the reserpine-injected mice. EA significantly reversed the changes of above proteins. However, EA did not affect the levels of GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors and the total levels of GluA1 and p-GluA1-Ser845. Our study provides strong evidence that EA attenuates reserpine-induced pain/depression dyad partially through regulating the biogenic amines levels and GluN2B receptors in the hippocampus.

Protective Effects of Gastrodin Against Autophagy-Mediated Astrocyte Death.

Gastrodin is an active ingredient derived from the rhizome of Gastrodia elata. This compound is usually used to treat convulsive illness, dizziness, vertigo, and headache. This study aimed to investigate the effect of gastrodin on the autophagy of glial cells exposed to lipopolysaccharides (LPS, 1 µg/mL). Autophagy is a form of programmed cell death, although it also promotes cell survival. In cultured astrocytes, LPS exposure induced excessive autophagy and apoptosis, which were significantly prevented by the pretreatment cells with gastrodin (10 µM). The protective effects of gastrodin via autophagy inhibition were verified by the decreased levels of LC3-II, P62, and Beclin-1, which are classical markers for autophagy. Furthermore, gastrodin protected astrocytes from apoptosis through Bcl-2 and Bax signaling pathway. The treatment of astrocytes with rapamycin (500 nM), wortmannin (100 nM), and LY294002 (10 µM), which are inhibitors of mTOR and PI3K, respectively, eliminated the known effects of gastrodin on the inhibited Beclin-1 expression. Furthermore, gastrodin blocked the down-regulation of glutamine synthetase induced by LPS exposure in astrocytes. Our results suggest that gastrodin can be used as a preventive agent for the excessive autophagy induced by LPS.

Upregulation of TRPC1 in microglia promotes neutrophil infiltration after ischemic stroke.

Neutrophil infiltration has been linked to worse clinical outcomes after ischemic stroke. Microglia, a key type of immune-competent cell, engage in cross-talk with the infiltrating immune cells in the inflamed brain area, yet the molecular mechanisms involved remain largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of how canonical transient receptor potential 1 (TRPC1) modulated neutrophil infiltration in male mouse cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury (CIRI) models. Our findings revealed a notable upregulation of TRPC1 in microglia within both middle cerebral artery occlusion reperfusion (MCAO/R) and in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation/regeneration (OGD/R) model. Conditional Trpc1 knockdown in microglia markedly reduced infarct volumes and alleviated neurological deficits. Microglia conditional Trpc1 knockdown mice displayed less neutrophil infiltration in peri-infarct area. Trpc1 knockdown microglia exhibited a reduced primed proinflammatory phenotype with less secretion of CC-Chemokines ligand (CCL) 5 and CCL2 after MCAO/R. Blocking CCL5/2 significantly mitigated neutrophil infiltration in microglia/neutrophil transwell co-culture system upon OGD/R condition. Trpc1 knockdown markedly reduced store-operated calcium entry and nuclear factor of activated T-cells c1 (NFATc1) level in OGD/R treated microglia. Overexpression of Nfatc1 reversed the CCL5/2 reducing effect of Trpc1 knockdown, which is mediated by small interfering RNA in BV2 cells upon OGD/R. Our data indicate that upregulation of TRPC1 in microglia stimulates the production of CCL5/2 through the Ca2+/NFATc1 pathway. Upregulated CCL5/2 leads to an increase in neutrophil infiltration into the brain, thereby aggravating reperfusion injury. Our results demonstrate the importance of TRPC1 in microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and suggest a potential means for reducing CIRI induced neurological injury.

Astrocyte KDM4A mediates chemokines and drives neutrophil infiltration to aggravate cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Neutrophils plays a crucial role in acute ischemic brain injury and have emerged as potential treatment targets to mitigate such injuries. Lysine-specific demethylase 4 A (KDM4A), a member of the histone lysine demethylase family of enzymes involved in transcriptional regulation of gene expression, is upregulated during hypoxic events. However, the exact role of KDM4A in the pathological process of ischemic stroke remains largely unexplored. Our findings reveal that there was an upregulation of KDM4A levels in reactive astrocytes within both stroke mouse models and in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation/regeneration (OGD/R) models. Using a conditional knockout mouse, we observed that astrocytic Kdm4a knockout regulates neutrophil infiltration and alleviates brain injury following middle cerebral artery occlusion reperfusion. Furthermore, Kdm4a deficiency astrocytes displayed lower chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1) level upon OGD/R and decreased neutrophil infiltration in a transwell system. Mechanistically, KDM4A, in cooperation with nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), activates Cxcl1 gene expression by demethylating histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation at Cxcl1 gene promoters in astrocytes upon OGD/R injury. Our findings suggest that astrocyte KDM4A-mediated Cxcl1 activation contributes to neutrophil infiltration via cooperation with NF-κB, and KDM4A in astrocytes may serve as a potential therapeutic target to modulate neutrophil infiltration after stroke.

TOM40 mediates the effect of TSPO on postpartum depression partially through regulating calcium homeostasis in microglia.

AIMS: To assess the effect of the translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) on postpartum depression and explore its mechanism. METHODS: Postpartum depression (PPD) mouse model was established, and flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, Western blot analysis, real-time quantitative PCR, adeno-associated virus (AAV), co-immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry and immunofluorescence co-staining were used to detect the effect of TSPO ligand ZBD-2 on PPD mice. RESULTS: ZBD-2 inhibits the overactivation of microglia in the hippocampus and amygdala of PPD model mice. ZBD-2 not only inhibited the inflammation but also repressed the burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial ROS (mtROS). Meanwhile, ZBD-2 protects mitochondria from LPS-induced damages through inhibiting the influx of calcium. ZBD-2 modulated the calcium influx by increasing the level of translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane 40 (TOM40) and reducing the interaction of TSPO and TOM40. In addition, the effect of ZBD-2 was partially dependent on anti-oxidative process. Knockdown of TOM40 by adeno-associated virus (AAV) in the hippocampus or amygdala dramatically reduced the effect of ZBD-2 on PPD, indicating that TOM40 mediates the effect of ZBD-2 on PPD. CONCLUSIONS: TOM40 is required for the effect of ZBD-2 on treating anxiety and depression in PPD mice. This study reveals the role of microglia TSPO in PPD development and provides the new therapeutic strategy for PPD.

L-Cysteine: A promising nutritional supplement for alleviating anxiety disorders.

Anxiety disorders are prevalent chronic psychological disease with complex pathogenic mechanisms. Current anxiolytics have limited efficacy and numerous side effects in many anxiety patients, highlighting the urgent need for new therapies. Recent research has been focusing on nutritional supplements, particularly amino acids, as potential therapies for anxiety disorders. Among these, L-Cysteine plays a crucial role in various biological processes. L-Cysteine exhibits antioxidant properties that can enhance the antioxidant functions of the central nervous system (CNS). Furthermore, metabolites of L-cysteine, such as glutathione and hydrogen sulfide have been shown to alleviate anxiety through distinct molecular mechanisms. Long-term administration of L-Cysteine has anxiolytic, antidepressant, and memory-improving effects. L-Cysteine depletion can lead to increased oxidative stress in the brain. This review delves into the potential mechanisms of L-Cysteine and its main products, glutathione (GSH) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the management of anxiety and related diseases.

Irisin: A promising treatment for neurodegenerative diseases.

The beneficial effects of exercise on human brain function have been demonstrated in previous studies. Myokines secreted by muscle have attracted increasing attention because of their bridging role between exercise and brain health. Regulated by PPARγ coactivator 1α, fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 releases irisin after proteolytic cleavage. Irisin, a type of myokine, is secreted during exercise, which induces white adipose tissue browning and relates to energy metabolism. Recently, irisin has been shown to exert a protective effect on the central nervous system. Irisin secretion triggers an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in the hippocampus, contributing to the amelioration of cognition impairments. Irisin also plays an important role in the survival, differentiation, growth, and development of neurons. This review summarizes the role of irisin in neurodegenerative diseases and other neurological disorders. As a novel positive mediator of exercise in the brain, irisin may effectively prevent or decelerate the progress of neurodegenerative diseases in models and also improve cognitive functions. We place emphasis herein on the potential of irisin for prevention rather than treatment in neurodegenerative diseases. In ischemic diseases, irisin can alleviate the pathophysiological processes associated with stroke. Meanwhile, irisin has anxiolytic and antidepressant effects. The potential therapeutic effects of irisin in epilepsy and pain have been initially revealed. Due to the pleiotropic and beneficial properties of irisin, the possibility of irisin treating other neurological diseases could be gradually explored in the future.

Mechanism of CNS regulation by irisin, a multifunctional protein.

Exercise not only builds up our body but also improves cognitive function. Skeletal muscle secretes myokine during exercise as a large reservoir of signaling molecules, which can be considered as a medium between exercise and brain health. Irisin is a circulating myokine derived from the Fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 (FNDC5). Irisin regulates energy metabolism because it can stimulate the "Browning" of white adipose tissue. It has been reported that irisin can cross the blood-brain barrier and increase the expression of a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus, which improves learning and memory. In addition, the neuroprotective effect of irisin has been verified in various disease models. Therefore, this review summarizes how irisin plays a neuroprotective role, including its signal pathway and mechanism. In addition, we will briefly discuss the therapeutic potential of irisin for neurological diseases.

Disrupting cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1 rescues cognitive flexibility in long-term estrogen-deprived female mice.

Hormone therapy (HT) has failed to improve learning and memory in postmenopausal women according to recent clinical studies; however, the reason for failure of HT in improving cognitive performance is unknown. In our research, we found cognitive flexibility was improved by 17ß-Estradiol (E2) in mice 1 week after ovariectomy (OVXST), but not in mice 3 months after ovariectomy (OVXLT). Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) revealed increased cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1 (CNRIP1) in E2-treated OVXLT mice compared with E2-treated OVXST mice. Adeno-associated virus 2/9 (AAV2/9) delivery of Cnrip1 short-hairpin small interfering RNA (Cnrip1-shRNA) rescued the impaired cognitive flexibility in E2 treated OVXLT mice. This effect is dependent on CB1 function, which could be blocked by AM251-a CB1 antagonist. Our results indicated a new method to increasing cognitive flexibility in women receiving HT by disrupting CNRIP1.

Activation of GIPR Exerts Analgesic and Anxiolytic-Like Effects in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex of Mice.

Background: Chronic pain is defined as pain that persists typically for a period of over six months. Chronic pain is often accompanied by an anxiety disorder, and these two tend to exacerbate each other. This can make the treatment of these conditions more difficult. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is a member of the incretin hormone family and plays a critical role in glucose metabolism. Previous research has demonstrated the multiple roles of GIP in both physiological and pathological processes. In the central nervous system (CNS), studies of GIP are mainly focused on neurodegenerative diseases; hence, little is known about the functions of GIP in chronic pain and pain-related anxiety disorders. Methods: The chronic inflammatory pain model was established by hind paw injection with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) in C57BL/6 mice. GIP receptor (GIPR) agonist (D-Ala2-GIP) and antagonist (Pro3-GIP) were given by intraperitoneal injection or anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) local microinjection. Von Frey filaments and radiant heat were employed to assess the mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity. Anxiety-like behaviors were detected by open field and elevated plus maze tests. The underlying mechanisms in the peripheral nervous system and CNS were explored by GIPR shRNA knockdown in the ACC, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blot analysis, whole-cell patch-clamp recording, immunofluorescence staining and quantitative real-time PCR. Results: In the present study, we found that hind paw injection with CFA induced pain sensitization and anxiety-like behaviors in mice. The expression of GIPR in the ACC was significantly higher in CFA-injected mice. D-Ala2-GIP administration by intraperitoneal or ACC local microinjection produced analgesic and anxiolytic effects; these were blocked by Pro3-GIP and GIPR shRNA knockdown in the ACC. Activation of GIPR inhibited neuroinflammation and activation of microglia, reversed the upregulation of NMDA and AMPA receptors, and suppressed the enhancement of excitatory neurotransmission in the ACC of model mice. Conclusions: GIPR activation was found to produce analgesic and anxiolytic effects, which were partially due to attenuation of neuroinflammation and inhibition of excitatory transmission in the ACC. GIPR may be a suitable target for treatment of chronic inflammatory pain and pain-related anxiety.

Activation of microglial G­protein-coupled receptor 30 protects neurons against excitotoxicity through NF-κB/MAPK pathways.

Neuroexcitotoxicity is a common feature in neuronal damage and neurodegenerative diseases. Our previous studies have confirmed that neuronal and astrocytic G­protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) play a key role in neuroprotection in vivo and in vitro. Microglia are considered as immune cells in the central nervous system. However, the role of microglial GPR30 in neuroprotection against neuroexcitotoxicity remained unclear. In this study, MTT, Western blot, immunocytochemical staining, phagocytosis assay and wound healing assay were employed to detect the effect of GPR30 in N9 microglial cells after exposure to glutamate. We found that the treatment of GPR30 specific agonist G1 inhibited glutamate-induced proliferation and activation in N9 microglial cells. G1 inhibited M1 polarization, facilitated M2 polarization, and decreased over-phagocytosis but had no effect on migration ability in microglia. The result of neurons and microglia co-culture showed that the activation of microglial GPR30 protected neurons from excitotoxicity through the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways. Our findings suggested a key role of microglial GPR30 in excitatory neuronal damage and neurodegenerative diseases.

Scutellarin alleviates depression-like behaviors induced by LPS in mice partially through inhibition of astrocyte-mediated neuroinflammation.

Depression is a kind of common mental disorder associated with neuroinflammation, and astrocytes play a vital role in regulating and mediating neuroinflammation in central nervous system. Scutellarin has significant anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. However, whether scutellarin exerts antidepressant effect remains unknown. In present study, it was found that scutellarin suppressed LPS-induced neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and alleviated depression-like behaviors in mice. In addition, scutellarin inhibited LPS-induced elevation of TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6 and iNOS, and reversed the downregulation of IL-4 and BDNF in astrocytes in vitro. Furthermore, the activated TLR4/NF-κB pathway in LPS-treated astrocytes was suppressed by scutellarin. Collectively, these results suggest that scutellarin ameliorates depression-like behaviors induced by neuroinflammation partially through inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in astrocytes.