The relationship between socio-economic status and diagnosed Type 2 diabetes is changing with economic growth in Nanjing, China.

AIM: In developed countries, the relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and Type 2 diabetes was positive several decades ago but is now negative. However, in developing societies such as China the relationship remains positive. It is likely that at some stage of economic development the SES-Type 2 diabetes association will become negative in developing communities. This study aimed to examine whether this inflexion is approaching in China. METHODS: Two cross-sectional surveys were undertaken in Nanjing, China, in 2000 and 2011. The same sampling approach was used to randomly select participants. Diagnosed Type 2 diabetes was the outcome variable. SES was measured using monthly family average income and divided into thirds. Mixed-effects models were used to calculate the association between SES and Type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: There were 19 861 (response rate, 90.1%) and 7824 (response rate, 82.8%) participants in 2000 and 2011, respectively. A 2.6-fold increase in Type 2 diabetes prevalence was observed from 3.0% (95% confidence interval 2.8%, 3.3%) in 2000 to 8.2% (7.7%, 8.8%) in 2011 (P < 0.01). After controlling for potential confounders, the odds ratios of having Type 2 diabetes decreased from 2.06 (95% CI 1.55, 2.73) and 1.83 (1.40, 2.37) in 2000 to 1.58 (1.23, 2.02) and 1.35 (1.06, 1.74) in 2011 for the higher and middle SES groups respectively, compared with those in the lower SES category. CONCLUSIONS: The SES-Type 2 diabetes association remained positive in Nanjing, China, in 2011 but the disparity diminished significantly compared with 2000. These results can inform the delivery of appropriate interventions to people at risk of developing Type 2 diabetes.

Meteorological factors and respiratory syncytial virus seasonality in subtropical Australia.

Evidence is emerging regarding the influence of meteorological factors on seasonal respiratory syncytial virus outbreaks. Data however, are limited for subtropical regions, especially in the southern hemisphere. We examined whether meteorological data (daily minimum and maximum temperatures, rainfall, relative humidity, dew point, daily global solar exposure) and tourist numbers were associated with the incidence of RSV in children aged <5 years for the Gold Coast region of South-East Queensland, Australia (latitude 28.0°S). RSV cases between 1 July 2007 and 30 June 2016 were identified from the Pathology Queensland Gold Coast Laboratory database. Time-series methods were used to identify seasonal patterns. RSV activity peaked in mid-to-late autumn (April-May), tapering in winter (June-August). While most meteorological variables measured were associated with RSV incidence, rainfall (ρ = 0.40, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.32-0.48) and humidity (ρ = 0.38, 95% CI 0.29-0.46) 8 weeks earlier had the nearest temporal relationship. Tourist numbers were not correlated with RSV activity. Identifying meteorological conditions associated with seasonal RSV epidemics can improve understanding of virus transmission and assist planning for their impact upon the health sector, including timing of passive RSV immunoprophylaxis for high-risk infants and future public health interventions, such as maternal immunisation with RSV vaccines.

The Iodine Status of Queensland Preschool Children After the Introduction of Mandatory Iodine Fortification in Bread: An Exploratory Study Using a Convenience Sample.

Introduction Appropriate dietary iodine is essential for thyroid hormone synthesis, especially in young children. Following an iodine fortification in bread initiative, approximately 6 % of Australian preschool children were expected to have an excessive iodine status. The aim of this study was to document the current iodine status of preschool children using urinary iodine concentration (UIC) as a biomarker of iodine intake. Methods A convenience sample of fifty-one preschool children, aged 2-3 years, were recruited from south east Queensland. UIC was ascertained from spot morning and afternoon urine samples collected on two consecutive days and food frequency questionnaires were completed for each participant. Dietary iodine intake was extrapolated from UIC assuming 90 % of dietary iodine is excreted in urine and a urine volume of 0.5 L/day. Results A median UIC of 223.3 µg/L was found. The calculated median dietary iodine intake was 124.8 µg/day (SD 47.0) with 9.8 % of samples above the upper level of 200 µg for dietary iodine for children within this age group. No foods were associated with UIC. Discussion Limited by sample size and recruitment strategies, no association was found between usual food intake and UIC. Extrapolated dietary iodine intake indicated that children within this cohort consumed adequate amounts of dietary iodine, although the number of children consuming above the upper limit of 300 µg/day was almost double of expected. The development of a UIC criteria to assess appropriate parameters for varying degrees of iodine status is required for the monitoring of iodine nutrition in this vulnerable age group.

The contribution of PCR testing to influenza and pertussis notifications in Australia.

Influenza and pertussis are the two most common vaccine-preventable infections notified in Australia. We assessed the role of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) diagnosis in influenza and pertussis cases notified to the Australian National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). There were a total of 2 10 786 notified influenza cases (2001-2013) and 2 55 866 notified pertussis cases (1991-2013). After 1 January 2007, the majority of influenza and pertussis notifications were PCR-based (80·5% and 59·6%, respectively). Before 31 December 2006, PCR-based notifications were limited (29·1% and 11·7%, respectively). By 2013, PCR-based notifications had largely replaced all other diagnostic methods, with the exception of serology-based notifications in pertussis cases in adults aged ⩾ 25 years.

Impact of an integrated model of care on potentially preventable hospitalizations for people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

AIMS: To evaluate the impact of an integrated model of care for patients with complex Type 2 diabetes mellitus on potentially preventable hospitalizations. METHODS: A prospective controlled trial was conducted comparing a multidisciplinary, community-based, integrated primary-secondary care diabetes service with usual care at a hospital diabetes outpatient clinic. Study and hospital admissions data were linked for the period from 12 months before to 24 months after commencement of the trial. The primary outcome was the number of potentially preventable hospitalizations with diabetes-related principal diagnoses. Length of stay once hospitalized was also reported. RESULTS: Of 327 adult participants, 206 were hospitalized and accounted for 667 admissions during the study period. Compared with the usual care group, patients in the integrated model of care group were nearly half as likely to be hospitalized for a potentially preventable diabetes-related principal diagnosis in the 24 months after study commencement (incidence rate ratio 0.53, 95% CI 0.29, 0.96; P = 0.04). The magnitude of the result remained similar after adjusting for age, sex, education and baseline HbA1c concentration (incidence rate ratio 0.54, 95% CI 0.29, 1.01; P = 0.05).When hospitalized, patients in the integrated care group had a similar length of stay compared with those in the usual care group (median difference -2 days, 95% CI -6.5, 2.3; P = 0.33). CONCLUSIONS: Patients receiving the integrated model of care had a reduction in the number of hospitalizations when the principal diagnosis for admission was a diabetes-related complication. Integrated models of care for people with complex diabetes can reduce hospitalizations and help attempts to curtail increasing demand on finite health services.

Advantages of collecting multiple urinary iodine concentrations when assessing iodine status of a population.

AIM: To evaluate the effect of collecting multiple (four) urine samples on the extensive variance often observed within a cohort when determining iodine status via urinary iodine concentration (UIC). METHODS: Fifty-one children aged two to three years and thirty children aged 8-10 years participated in the study in South East Queensland, Australia. Each child's four urine samples were analysed using ammonium persulphate digestion before a Sandell-Kolthoff reaction method. Analysis of variance techniques were used to assess the effect of using multiple urine samples. RESULTS: The median UICs were 223.3 and 141 µg/L for two- to three-year-olds and eight- to 10-year-olds, respectively. The coefficient of variance (CV) of UIC for children aged two to three years was reduced by 35.6%, 36.5% and 39.7% when two, three and four samples were included in the adjustment, respectively. Similarly, the CV of UIC for children aged 8-10 years was reduced by 24.7%, 30.7% and 34.7%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Although the practicality and cost of collecting multiple UICs need to be considered, collecting multiple UIC samples from each participant provides a more accurate reflection of a cohort iodine status.

Analysis of the causes and effects of delay before diagnosis using surgical mortality data.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to assess the causes and effects of delay in diagnosis in surgical patients who died in 20 public hospitals participating in the Queensland Audit of Surgical Mortality (QASM) in Australia. METHODS: This was a retrospective cross-sectional analysis (June 2007 to December 2011) of deaths reported to QASM. Deaths were assigned to one of two groups (no delay or delay in diagnosis). Logistic regression was used to compare the association of delay with surgical complications, both overall and by surgical specialty. RESULTS: A total of 3139 deaths were reported. Diagnostic delay was reported in 293 (9·3 per cent). The primary cause of delay was attributed to diagnostic support services (41·7 per cent). Some 174 (13·8 per cent) of 1259 general (gastrointestinal) surgery patients experienced delayed diagnosis. Delay across all surgical specialties was associated with an increased risk of unplanned return to theatre (odds ratio (OR) 1·77, 95 per cent confidence interval 1·24 to 2·52), of being treated in intensive care (OR 1·71, 1·15 to 2·54) and of postoperative complications (OR 1·39, 1·05 to 1·85). CONCLUSION: General (gastrointestinal) surgery patients who experienced delayed diagnosis were at increased risk of postoperative complications.

Model of care for the management of complex Type 2 diabetes managed in the community by primary care physicians with specialist support: an open controlled trial.

AIMS: To evaluate patient outcomes for a novel integrated primary/specialist model of community care for complex Type 2 diabetes mellitus management compared with outcomes for usual care at a tertiary hospital for diabetes outpatients. METHODS: This was a prospective open controlled trial performed in a primary and tertiary care setting in Australia. A total of 330 patients with Type 2 diabetes aged >18 years were allocated to an intervention (n=185) or usual care group (n=145). The intervention arm was a community-based model of care led by a general practitioner with advanced skills and an endocrinologist partnership. Usual care was provided via the hospital diabetes outpatient department. The primary end point was HbA(1c) concentration at 12 months. Secondary end points included serum lipids and blood pressure. RESULTS: The mean change in HbA1c concentration in the intervention group was -9 mmol/mol (-0.8%) at 12 months and in the usual care group it was -2 mmol/mol (-0.2%) (95% CI -5,1). The percentage of patients in the intervention group achieving the HbA(1c) target of ≤53 mmol/mol (7%) increased from 21 to 42% (P<0.001); for the usual care group there was a 1% increase to 39% of patients attaining this target (P=0.99). Patients in the intervention group experienced significant improvements in blood pressure and total cholesterol compared with those in the usual care group. The percentage of patients achieving clinical targets was greater in the intervention group for the combined target of HbA(1c) concentration, blood pressure and LDL cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: A community-based, integrated model of complex diabetes care, delivered by general practitioners with advanced skills, produced clinical and process benefits compared with a tertiary diabetes outpatient clinic.

Sunshine, rainfall, humidity and child pneumonia in the tropics: time-series analyses.

Few studies have formally examined the relationship between meteorological factors and the incidence of child pneumonia in the tropics, despite the fact that most child pneumonia deaths occur there. We examined the association between four meteorological exposures (rainy days, sunshine, relative humidity, temperature) and the incidence of clinical pneumonia in young children in the Philippines using three time-series methods: correlation of seasonal patterns, distributed lag regression, and case-crossover. Lack of sunshine was most strongly associated with pneumonia in both lagged regression [overall relative risk over the following 60 days for a 1-h increase in sunshine per day was 0·67 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0·51-0·87)] and case-crossover analysis [odds ratio for a 1-h increase in mean daily sunshine 8-14 days earlier was 0·95 (95% CI 0·91-1·00)]. This association is well known in temperate settings but has not been noted previously in the tropics. Further research to assess causality is needed.

Physical health outcomes in prisoners with intellectual disability: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: People with intellectual disability (ID) in the general population and people in prison experience unrecognised medical conditions and inadequate disease prevention. Among prisoners, those with an ID may be particularly disadvantaged. The aim of this study was to identify demographic, health and health-related characteristics of adult prisoners who screened positive for ID. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were collected via face-to-face administration of a structured questionnaire in seven prisons in Queensland, Australia, between 2008 and 2010. Participants were adult prisoners within 6 weeks of release from custody. We identified ID using a pragmatic screening tool. Prisoners who scored <85 on the Hayes Ability Screening Index and either (a) reported having attended a special school or (b) reported having been diagnosed with an ID were considered to have screened positive for ID. We compared the characteristics of participants who screened positive and negative for ID using univariable and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Screening positive for ID was associated with younger age, identifying as Indigenous and lower educational achievement. Prisoners who screened positive for ID were more likely to have been diagnosed with medical conditions such as heart disease (odds ratio; 95% confidence interval = 2.1; 1.0-4.2) and hearing problems (2.2; 1.3-3.7), after adjustment for age, sex, education level and Indigenous status. Screen-positive prisoners were less likely to have received preventive care interventions such as testing for hepatitis A infection (0.4; 0.2-0.6), and immunisation for tuberculosis (0.4; 0.2-0.8). Prisoners with possible ID were more likely to be obese (1.7; 1.1-2.7). CONCLUSIONS: Adult prisoners who screen positive for ID have worse health outcomes than their non-disabled peers. An improved understanding of physical health characteristics prior to release can direct treatment and support pathways out of the criminal justice system and inform transitional planning of health services for this profoundly disadvantaged group.

General practitioners' views on perceived and actual gains, benefits and barriers associated with the implementation of an Australian health assessment for people with intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Health assessments for people with intellectual disability have been implemented in the UK, New Zealand and Australia, and have led to improved health outcomes. The Comprehensive Health Assessment Program (CHAP) has been shown to improve the health of people with intellectual disability. Similar to other health assessments, it is designed to address healthcare needs, many of which are often overlooked in this population, through better communication between the general practitioner (GP), support worker and the person with intellectual disability. This study investigates GP views of the perceived and actual benefits, gains and barriers associated with its uptake and use in practice. METHOD: As part of a larger randomised controlled trial of the CHAP, 46 GPs in Queensland, Australia, completed two telephone interviews that included open-ended questions about their perceptions of the health assessment. The GPs were enrolled in the intervention arm of the trial. Interviews took place at commencement and conclusion of the trial to gain the views of GPs as they experienced using the CHAP. Thematic analysis was used to identify key themes and patterns from the GP responses. RESULTS: Four themes were identified: better healthcare and uncertain benefits captured GP perceptions of the potential gains associated with use of the CHAP, while two further themes, organisational barriers in the general practice setting and engagement across the healthcare triad highlighted strengths and barriers related to implementation. Anticipated concerns about time raised by GPs at commencement of the trial were borne out in practice, but concerns about communication and cooperation of people with disabilities were not. Matters associated with support worker engagement emerged as an area of concern. CONCLUSIONS: GPs perceive the CHAP as a structured and comprehensive approach to the detection of medical problems as well as an aid in overcoming communication barriers between the doctor and the person with disability. Our findings suggest that some GPs may find it difficult to predict the benefits of using health assessments such as the CHAP. Achieving optimal uptake is likely to require attention at policy and systems levels to address: GP time constraints in providing healthcare to this population; enhancement of support worker training and organisational structures to encourage comprehensive health assessment and follow-up activities; and GP awareness of the improved health outcomes shown to derive from the use of comprehensive health assessments.

Physical activity, family history of diabetes and risk of developing hyperglycaemia and diabetes among adults in Mainland China.

AIMS: To investigate the joint influence of physical activity and family history of diabetes on the subsequent risk of developing hyperglycaemia and Type 2 diabetes among Chinese adults. METHODS: A prospective community-based cohort study was conducted among adults aged 35 years and older during 2004-2007 in Nanjing, China. Four communities (three urban and one rural) were randomly selected from 11 urban districts and two rural counties. Hyperglycaemia and Type 2 diabetes were defined using World Health Organization criteria based on fasting blood glucose concentration and physicians' diagnosis, respectively. Physical activity, parental diabetes history, and other important covariates were assessed at baseline and in the third-year follow-up survey. RESULTS: At study conclusion data were collected from 3031 participants (follow-up rate 81.3%). The 3-year cumulative incidence of hyperglycaemia and Type 2 diabetes was 6.2% and 2.4%, respectively. After adjustment for potential confounding variables, compared with those with positive family history and insufficient physical activity, the adjusted relative risk ratio (95% CI) of developing hyperglycaemia was 0.19 (0.02, 1.51) for participants with sufficient physical activity and a positive family history; 0.55 (0.31, 0.97) for participants with insufficient physical activity and a negative family history; and 0.36 (0.19, 0.70) for participants with sufficient physical activity but a negative family history. Participants who had a negative family history and insufficient physical activity were also less likely to develop Type 2 diabetes (RRR = 0.28; 0.14, 0.54), and participants with a negative family history and sufficient physical activity were the least likely to develop Type 2 diabetes (0.23; 0.10, 0.56). CONCLUSIONS: Sufficient physical activity and negative family history of diabetes may jointly reduce the risk of developing hyperglycaemia and Type 2 diabetes in Chinese adults.

Health advocacy: a vital step in attaining human rights for adults with intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: People with intellectual disability (ID) experience health inequity compared with the general population, a key contributing factor being disparities in social determinants of health. The enactment of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) provides a platform for the progression and promotion of health and other interconnected rights to address barriers to the highest attainable standard of health for this populace. Rights can be brought to life through advocacy efforts. This paper explores the meaning, perceptions and experiences of advocacy by family members and paid support workers of adults with ID and locates the findings within a health and human rights discourse. METHODS: As part of a larger randomised controlled trial, 113 parents and 84 support workers of adults with ID completed a telephone interview that included open-ended questions about their understanding and experiences of advocacy. Thematic analysis was used to identify relevant themes. RESULTS: Five key themes were identified. The first underscored how advocacy to 'speak up' for the person with ID is integral to both parent and support worker roles. The second and third themes considered the contexts for advocacy efforts. Access to quality health care was a core concern, along with advocacy across other areas and sectors to address the person's wider psychosocial needs. The remaining themes highlighted the many dimensions to advocacy, including differences between parent and support worker views, with parental advocacy being an expression of 'caring' and support workers motivated by a 'duty of care' to protect the individual's 'rights'. CONCLUSION: Parent and support worker advocacy provides one means to address the social determinants of health and fulfilment of health rights of and for people with ID. Policy and practice in the context of governmental obligation under the CRPD should support advocacy and make health rights the reality not rhetoric for this group of men and women.

Host and environmental factors reducing mortality during the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic.

Mortality from influenza and pneumonia during the 1918-1919 pandemic was compared between subgroups of civilian and military populations from states in Australia and the USA. Exposures to crowded environments before and during the pandemic were used as proxies for exposure to respiratory infections. In three separate datasets, civilian mortality from influenza and pneumonia was higher in urban than rural populations. In contrast soldiers from these same urban backgrounds had significantly lower mortality than their rural counterparts. This suggests the lower mortality in rural civilians was due to the rural environment, probably due to the relative social isolation in rural areas. This is encouraging for pandemic planning, as it suggests social distancing interventions have the potential to reduce mortality in future pandemics. Soldiers recruited before 1918 had significantly lower mortality than those recruited in 1918, and this effect was separate from the protection given by urban origin to soldiers. Both these effects substantially reduced mortality in soldiers. Further research to identify the mechanisms of these separate protective effects may yield important evidence to inform pandemic planning strategies.

Automating Quantitative Measures of an Established Conventional MRI Scoring System for Preterm-Born Infants Scanned between 29 and 47 Weeks' Postmenstrual Age.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Conventional MR imaging scoring is a valuable tool for risk stratification and prognostication of outcomes, but manual scoring is time-consuming, operator-dependent, and requires high-level expertise. This study aimed to automate the regional measurements of an established brain MR imaging scoring system for preterm neonates scanned between 29 and 47 weeks' postmenstrual age. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study used T2WI from the longitudinal Prediction of PREterm Motor Outcomes cohort study and the developing Human Connectome Project. Measures of biparietal width, interhemispheric distance, callosal thickness, transcerebellar diameter, lateral ventricular diameter, and deep gray matter area were extracted manually (Prediction of PREterm Motor Outcomes study only) and automatically. Scans with poor quality, failure of automated analysis, or severe pathology were excluded. Agreement, reliability, and associations between manual and automated measures were assessed and compared against statistics for manual measures. Associations between measures with postmenstrual age, gestational age at birth, and birth weight were examined (Pearson correlation) in both cohorts. RESULTS: A total of 652 MRIs (86%) were suitable for analysis. Automated measures showed good-to-excellent agreement and good reliability with manual measures, except for interhemispheric distance at early MR imaging (scanned between 29 and 35 weeks, postmenstrual age; in line with poor manual reliability) and callosal thickness measures. All measures were positively associated with postmenstrual age (r = 0.11-0.94; R2 = 0.01-0.89). Negative and positive associations were found with gestational age at birth (r = -0.26-0.71; R2 = 0.05-0.52) and birth weight (r = -0.25-0.75; R2 = 0.06-0.56). Automated measures were successfully extracted for 80%-99% of suitable scans. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of brain injury and impaired brain growth can be automatically extracted from neonatal MR imaging, which could assist with clinical reporting.

Processes of care in surgical patients who died with hospital-acquired infections in Australian hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Infection may complicate surgical patients' hospital admission. The effect of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) on processes of care among surgical patients who died is unknown. AIM: To investigate the effect of HAIs on processes of care in surgical patients who died in hospital. METHODS: Surgeon-recorded infection data extracted from a national Australian surgical mortality audit (2012-2016) were grouped into HAIs and no infection. The audit included all-age surgical patients, who died in hospital. Not all patients had surgery. Excluded from analysis were patients with community-acquired infection and those with missing timing of infection. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the adjusted effects of HAIs on the processes of care in these patients. Costs associated with HAIs were estimated. FINDINGS: One-fifth of surgical patients who died did so with an HAI (2242 out of 11,681; 19.2%). HAI patients had increased processes of care compared to those who died without infection: postoperative complications [51.0% vs 30.3%; adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.20; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.98-2.45; P < 0.001]; unplanned reoperations (22.6% vs 10.9%; aOR: 2.38; 95% CI: 2.09-2.71; P < 0.001) and unplanned intensive care unit admission (29.3% vs 14.8%; aOR: 2.18; 95% CI: 1.94-2.45; P < 0.001). HAI patients had longer hospital admissions and greater hospital costs than those without infection. CONCLUSION: HAIs were associated with increased processes of care and costs in surgical patients who died; these outcomes need to be investigated in surgical patients who survive.

Validation of an MRI Brain Injury and Growth Scoring System in Very Preterm Infants Scanned at 29- to 35-Week Postmenstrual Age.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The diagnostic and prognostic potential of brain MR imaging before term-equivalent age is limited until valid MR imaging scoring systems are available. This study aimed to validate an MR imaging scoring system of brain injury and impaired growth for use at 29 to 35 weeks postmenstrual age in infants born at <31 weeks gestational age. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty-three infants in a prospective cohort study underwent early 3T MR imaging between 29 and 35 weeks' postmenstrual age (mean, 32+2 ± 1+3 weeks; 49 males, born at median gestation of 28+4 weeks; range, 23+6-30+6 weeks; mean birthweight, 1068 ± 312 g). Seventy-seven infants had a second MR scan at term-equivalent age (mean, 40+6 ± 1+3 weeks). Structural images were scored using a modified scoring system which generated WM, cortical gray matter, deep gray matter, cerebellar, and global scores. Outcome at 12-months corrected age (mean, 12 months 4 days ± 1+2 weeks) consisted of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd ed. (Bayley III), and the Neuro-Sensory Motor Developmental Assessment. RESULTS: Early MR imaging global, WM, and deep gray matter scores were negatively associated with Bayley III motor (regression coefficient for global score ß = -1.31; 95% CI, -2.39 to -0.23; P = .02), cognitive (ß = -1.52; 95% CI, -2.39 to -0.65; P < .01) and the Neuro-Sensory Motor Developmental Assessment outcomes (ß = -1.73; 95% CI, -3.19 to -0.28; P = .02). Early MR imaging cerebellar scores were negatively associated with the Neuro-Sensory Motor Developmental Assessment (ß = -5.99; 95% CI, -11.82 to -0.16; P = .04). Results were reconfirmed at term-equivalent-age MR imaging. CONCLUSIONS: This clinically accessible MR imaging scoring system is valid for use at 29 to 35 weeks postmenstrual age in infants born very preterm. It enables identification of infants at risk of adverse outcomes before the current standard of term-equivalent age.

Cross-sectional biomonitoring study of pesticide exposures in Queensland, Australia, using pooled urine samples.

A range of pesticides are available in Australia for use in agricultural and domestic settings to control pests, including organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, herbicides, and insect repellents, such as N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET). The aim of this study was to provide a cost-effective preliminary assessment of background exposure to a range of pesticides among a convenience sample of Australian residents. De-identified urine specimens stratified by age and sex were obtained from a community-based pathology laboratory and pooled (n = 24 pools of 100 specimens). Concentrations of urinary pesticide biomarkers were quantified using solid-phase extraction coupled with isotope dilution high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Geometric mean biomarker concentrations ranged from <0.1 to 36.8 ng/mL for organophosphate insecticides, <0.1 to 5.5 ng/mL for pyrethroid insecticides, and <0.1 to 8.51 ng/mL for all other biomarkers with the exception of the DEET metabolite 3-diethylcarbamoyl benzoic acid (4.23 to 850 ng/mL). We observed no association between age and concentration for most biomarkers measured but noted a "U-shaped" trend for five organophosphate metabolites, with the highest concentrations observed in the youngest and oldest age strata, perhaps related to age-specific differences in behavior or physiology. The fact that concentrations of specific and non-specific metabolites of the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos were higher than reported in USA and Canada may relate to differences in registered applications among countries. Additional biomonitoring programs of the general population and focusing on vulnerable populations would improve the exposure assessment and the monitoring of temporal exposure trends as usage patterns of pesticide products in Australia change over time.

Quantification of the magnification and distortion effects of a pediatric flexible video-bronchoscope.

BACKGROUND: Flexible video bronchoscopes, in particular the Olympus BF Type 3C160, are commonly used in pediatric respiratory medicine. There is no data on the magnification and distortion effects of these bronchoscopes yet important clinical decisions are made from the images. The aim of this study was to systematically describe the magnification and distortion of flexible bronchoscope images taken at various distances from the object. METHODS: Using images of known objects and processing these by digital video and computer programs both magnification and distortion scales were derived. RESULTS: Magnification changes as a linear function between 100 mm (x1) and 10 mm (x9.55) and then as an exponential function between 10 mm and 3 mm (x40) from the object. Magnification depends on the axis of orientation of the object to the optic axis or geometrical axis of the bronchoscope. Magnification also varies across the field of view with the central magnification being 39% greater than at the periphery of the field of view at 15 mm from the object. However, in the paediatric situation the diameter of the orifices is usually less than 10 mm and thus this limits the exposure to these peripheral limits of magnification reduction. Intraclass correlations for measurements and repeatability studies between instruments are very high, r = 0.96. Distortion occurs as both barrel and geometric types but both types are heterogeneous across the field of view. Distortion of geometric type ranges up to 30% at 3 mm from the object but may be as low as 5% depending on the position of the object in relation to the optic axis. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the optimal working distance range is between 40 and 10 mm from the object. However the clinician should be cognisant of both variations in magnification and distortion in clinical judgements.