Clinical and analytical validation of an 82-gene comprehensive genome-profiling panel for identifying and interpreting variants responsible for inherited retinal dystrophies.

Inherited retinal dystrophies comprise a clinically complex and heterogenous group of diseases characterized by visual impairment due to pathogenic variants of over 300 different genes. Accurately identifying the causative gene and associated variant is crucial for the definitive diagnosis and subsequent selection of precise treatments. Consequently, well-validated genetic tests are required in the clinical practice. Here, we report the analytical and clinical validation of a next-generation sequencing targeted gene panel, the PrismGuide IRD Panel System. This system enables comprehensive genome profiling of 82 genes related to inherited retinal dystrophies. The PrismGuide IRD Panel System demonstrated 100% (n = 43) concordance with Sanger sequencing in detecting single-nucleotide variants, small insertions, and small deletions in the target genes and also in assessing their zygosity. It also identified copy-number loss in four out of five cases. When assessing precision, we evaluated the reproducibility of variant detection with 2,160 variants in 144 replicates and found 100% agreement in terms of single-nucleotide variants (n = 1,584) and small insertions and deletions (n = 576). Furthermore, the PrismGuide IRD Panel System generated sufficient read depth for variant calls across the purine-rich and highly repetitive open-reading frame 15 region of RPGR and detected all five variants tested. These results show that the PrismGuide IRD Panel System can accurately and consistently detect single-nucleotide variants and small insertions and deletions. Thus, the PrismGuide IRD Panel System could serve as useful tool that is applicable in clinical practice for identifying the causative genes based on the detection and interpretation of variants in patients with inherited retinal dystrophies and can contribute to a precise molecular diagnosis and targeted treatments.

IRView: a database and viewer for protein interacting regions.

UNLABELLED: Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are mediated through specific regions on proteins. Some proteins have two or more protein interacting regions (IRs) and some IRs are competitively used for interactions with different proteins. IRView currently contains data for 3417 IRs in human and mouse proteins. The data were obtained from different sources and combined with annotated region data from InterPro. Information on non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism sites and variable regions owing to alternative mRNA splicing is also included. The IRView web interface displays all IR data, including user-uploaded data, on reference sequences so that the positional relationship between IRs can be easily understood. IRView should be useful for analyzing underlying relationships between the proteins behind the PPI networks. AVAILABILITY: IRView is publicly available on the web at http://ir.hgc.jp/

Quantitative evaluation of MSI testing using NGS detects the imperceptible microsatellite changed caused by MSH6 deficiency.

Microsatellite instability (MSI) is an effective biomarker for diagnosing Lynch syndrome (LS) and predicting the responsiveness of cancer therapy. MSI testing is conventionally performed by capillary electrophoresis, and MSI status is judged by visual assessment of allele size change. Here, we attempted to develop a quantitative evaluation model of MSI using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Microsatellite markers were analyzed in tumor and non-tumor tissues of colorectal cancer patients by NGS after a single multiplex polymerase chain reaction amplification. The read counts corresponding to microsatellite loci lengths were calculated independently of mapping against a reference genome, and their distribution was digitized by weighted mean. Weighted mean differences between tumor and non-tumor samples with different MSI status were assessed, and cut-off values for each marker in the discovery cohort were determined. Each microsatellite maker was defined as unstable if the weighted mean difference was greater than the cut-off value. In the discovery cohort, the evaluation model demonstrated sensitivity and specificity of 100% for all markers. In the validation cohort, MSI status determined by the new model was consistent with the outcome of the conventional method in 29/30 cases (97%). The single inconsistent case was classified as low-frequency MSI by the conventional method but considered MSI-high by NGS. Genetic testing for mismatch repair genes revealed a pathogenic variant in MSH6 in the discordant case. We successfully developed a quantitative evaluation method for determining MSI status using NGS. This is a robust and sensitive method and could improve LS diagnosis.

Characteristics and clustering of human ribosomal protein genes.

BACKGROUND: The ribosome is a central player in the translation system, which in mammals consists of four RNA species and 79 ribosomal proteins (RPs). The control mechanisms of gene expression and the functions of RPs are believed to be identical. Most RP genes have common promoters and were therefore assumed to have a unified gene expression control mechanism. RESULTS: We systematically analyzed the homogeneity and heterogeneity of RP genes on the basis of their expression profiles, promoter structures, encoded amino acid compositions, and codon compositions. The results revealed that (1) most RP genes are coordinately expressed at the mRNA level, with higher signals in the spleen, lymph node dissection (LND), and fetal brain. However, 17 genes, including the P protein genes (RPLP0, RPLP1, RPLP2), are expressed in a tissue-specific manner. (2) Most promoters have GC boxes and possible binding sites for nuclear respiratory factor 2, Yin and Yang 1, and/or activator protein 1. However, they do not have canonical TATA boxes. (3) Analysis of the amino acid composition of the encoded proteins indicated a high lysine and arginine content. (4) The major RP genes exhibit a characteristic synonymous codon composition with high rates of G or C in the third-codon position and a high content of AAG, CAG, ATC, GAG, CAC, and CTG. CONCLUSION: Eleven of the RP genes are still identified as being unique and did not exhibit at least some of the above characteristics, indicating that they may have unknown functions not present in other RP genes. Furthermore, we found sequences conserved between human and mouse genes around the transcription start sites and in the intronic regions. This study suggests certain overall trends and characteristic features of human RP genes.

Genome-wide screening of dioxin-responsive genes in fetal brain: bioinformatic and experimental approaches.

Many of the effects of dioxins, which are potent environmental pollutants and teratogens, are mediated through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, also known as the dioxin receptor. The purpose of the present study was to characterize dioxin-responsive genes in a comprehensive manner using two complementary approaches: bioinformatic analysis and microarray analysis. First, we characterized the overall distribution of the cis-regulatory element for the dioxin-responsive element sequence (DRE) 'gcgtg' within putative promoter regions. We assembled the upstream sequences 10 kb from the transcription start site and evaluated their location and frequency in the human and mouse genomes. Second, we characterized the expression profile of mouse embryonic day 12 fetal brain exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrarchlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. The distributions of 26,680 DREs among 2,843 human genes and 98,711 DREs among 18,541 mouse genes were examined. In both species, the DREs tended to be located close to the transcription start site. Forty genes exhibited significant induction or repression following dioxin exposure in fetal mice. The set of genes exhibited a strong functional coherence, with statistically significant enrichment in organogenesis and the DNA-dependent regulation of transcription, according to Gene Ontology annotations. In both humans and mice, DREs were preferentially distributed close to transcription start sites. Evolutionary conservation of this unique DRE distribution pattern suggests that DREs may be involved in transcriptional regulation. In mice, prenatal dioxin exposure altered the expression of 10 transcription factors, many of which have been documented to play a role in organogenesis. These genes may represent potential mediators of dioxin's effects in fetal tissues.

Microarray and whole-exome sequencing analysis of familial Behçet's disease patients.

Behçet's disease (BD), a chronic systemic inflammatory disorder, is characterized by recurrent oral and genital mucous ulcers, uveitis, and skin lesions. We performed DNA microarray analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) mRNA from 41 Japanese BD patients and revealed elevated levels of interleukin (IL) 23 receptor (IL23R) mRNA in many BD patients. DNA sequencing around a SNV (Rs12119179) tightly linked to BD revealed an elevated frequency of the C genotype, consistent with a previous report that IL23R is a susceptibility locus for BD. Notably, four of these BD patients are members of familial BD; a whole-exome sequencing (WES) of these BD patients identified 19 novel single-nucleotide variations (SNVs) specific to these patients. They include heterozygous SNVs in the genes encoding IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 14 (NRP14) and melanoma antigen-encoding gene E2 (MAGEE2); IRAK4 harbors a missense mutation, whereas NRP14 and MAGEE2 harbor nonsense mutations. These SNVs may serve as genetic markers that characterize BD.

GC-compositional strand bias around transcription start sites in plants and fungi.

BACKGROUND: A GC-compositional strand bias or GC-skew (=(C-G)/(C+G)), where C and G denote the numbers of cytosine and guanine residues, was recently reported near the transcription start sites (TSS) of Arabidopsis genes. However, it is unclear whether other eukaryotic species have equally prominent GC-skews, and the biological meaning of this trait remains unknown. RESULTS: Our study confirmed a significant GC-skew (C > G) in the TSS of Oryza sativa (rice) genes. The full-length cDNAs and genomic sequences from Arabidopsis and rice were compared using statistical analyses. Despite marked differences in the G+C content around the TSS in the two plants, the degrees of bias were almost identical. Although slight GC-skew peaks, including opposite skews (C < G), were detected around the TSS of genes in human and Drosophila, they were qualitatively and quantitatively different from those identified in plants. However, plant-like GC-skew in regions upstream of the translation initiation sites (TIS) in some fungi was identified following analyses of the expressed sequence tags and/or genomic sequences from other species. On the basis of our dataset, we estimated that > 70 and 68% of Arabidopsis and rice genes, respectively, had a strong GC-skew (> 0.33) in a 100-bp window (that is, the number of C residues was more than double the number of G residues in a +/-100-bp window around the TSS). The mean GC-skew value in the TSS of highly-expressed genes in Arabidopsis was significantly greater than that of genes with low expression levels. Many of the GC-skew peaks were preferentially located near the TSS, so we examined the potential value of GC-skew as an index for TSS identification. Our results confirm that the GC-skew can be used to assist the TSS prediction in plant genomes. CONCLUSION: The GC-skew (C > G) around the TSS is strictly conserved between monocot and eudicot plants (ie. angiosperms in general), and a similar skew has been observed in some fungi. Highly-expressed Arabidopsis genes had overall a more marked GC-skew in the TSS compared to genes with low expression levels. We therefore propose that the GC-skew around the TSS in some plants and fungi is related to transcription. It might be caused by mutations during transcription initiation or the frequent use of transcription factor-biding sites having a strand preference. In addition, GC-skew is a good candidate index for TSS prediction in plant genomes, where there is a lack of correlation among CpG islands and genes.

In silico diagnosis of inherently inhibited gene expression focusing on initial codon combinations.

The translation start site, immediately downstream from the start codon, is a dominant factor for gene expression in Escherichia coli. At present, no method exists to improve the expression level of cloned genes, since it remains difficult to find the best codon combination within the region. We determined the expression parameters that correspond to all sense codons within the first four codons using GFPuv which encodes a derivative of green fluorescent protein. Using a genetic algorithm (GA)-based computer program, these parameters were incorporated in a simple, static model for the prediction of translation efficiency, and optimized to the expression level for 137 randomly isolated GFPuv genes. The calculated initial translation index (ITI), also proven for the DsRed2 gene that encodes a red fluorescent protein, should provide a solution to overcome the gene expression problem in cloned genes whose expression is often inherently blocked at the translation process. The proposed method facilitates heterologous protein production in E. coli, the most commonly used host in biological and industrial fields.

A novel feature of microsatellites in plants: a distribution gradient along the direction of transcription.

A computer-based analysis was conducted to assess the characteristics of microsatellites in transcribed regions of rice and Arabidopsis. In addition, two mammals were simultaneously analyzed for a comparative analysis. Our analyses confirmed a novel plant-specific feature in which there is a gradient in microsatellite density along the direction of transcription. It was also confirmed that pyrimidine-rich microsatellites are found intensively near the transcription start sites, specifically in the two plants, but not in the mammals. Our results suggest that microsatellites located at high frequency in the 5'-flanking regions of plant genes can potentially act as factors in regulating gene expression.

Characterization of the splice sites in GT-AG and GC-AG introns in higher eukaryotes using full-length cDNAs.

For the purpose of analyzing the relation between the splice sites and the order of introns, we conducted the following analysis for the GT-AG and GC-AG splice site groups. First, the pre-mRNAs of H. sapiens, M. musculus, D. melanogaster, A. thaliana and O. sativa were sampled by mapping the full-length cDNA to the genomes. Next, the consensus sequences at different regions of pre-mRNAs were analyzed in the five species. We also investigated the mononucleotide and dinucleotide frequencies in the extensive regions around the 5' splice sites (5'ss) and 3' splice sites (3'ss). As a result, differential frequencies of nucleotides at the first 5'ss in both the GT-AG and GC-AG splice site groups were observed in A. thaliana and O. sativa pre-mRNAs. The trend, which indicates that GC 5'ss possess strong consensus sequences, was observed not only in mammalian pre-mRNAs but also in the pre-mRNAs of D. melanogaster, A. thaliana and O. sativa. Furthermore, we examined the consensus sequences of the constitutive and alternative splice sites. It was suggested that in the case of the alternative GC-AG introns, the tendency to have a weak consensus sequence at 5'ss is different between H. sapiens and M. musculus pre-mRNAs.

Next-generation sequencing coupled with a cell-free display technology for high-throughput production of reliable interactome data.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has been applied to various kinds of omics studies, resulting in many biological and medical discoveries. However, high-throughput protein-protein interactome datasets derived from detection by sequencing are scarce, because protein-protein interaction analysis requires many cell manipulations to examine the interactions. The low reliability of the high-throughput data is also a problem. Here, we describe a cell-free display technology combined with NGS that can improve both the coverage and reliability of interactome datasets. The completely cell-free method gives a high-throughput and a large detection space, testing the interactions without using clones. The quantitative information provided by NGS reduces the number of false positives. The method is suitable for the in vitro detection of proteins that interact not only with the bait protein, but also with DNA, RNA and chemical compounds. Thus, it could become a universal approach for exploring the large space of protein sequences and interactome networks.

A comprehensive resource of interacting protein regions for refining human transcription factor networks.

Large-scale data sets of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are a valuable resource for mapping and analysis of the topological and dynamic features of interactome networks. The currently available large-scale PPI data sets only contain information on interaction partners. The data presented in this study also include the sequences involved in the interactions (i.e., the interacting regions, IRs) suggested to correspond to functional and structural domains. Here we present the first large-scale IR data set obtained using mRNA display for 50 human transcription factors (TFs), including 12 transcription-related proteins. The core data set (966 IRs; 943 PPIs) displays a verification rate of 70%. Analysis of the IR data set revealed the existence of IRs that interact with multiple partners. Furthermore, these IRs were preferentially associated with intrinsic disorder. This finding supports the hypothesis that intrinsically disordered regions play a major role in the dynamics and diversity of TF networks through their ability to structurally adapt to and bind with multiple partners. Accordingly, this domain-based interaction resource represents an important step in refining protein interactions and networks at the domain level and in associating network analysis with biological structure and function.

Computational analysis suggests that alternative first exons are involved in tissue-specific transcription in rice (Oryza sativa).

MOTIVATION: Transcription start site selection and alternative splicing greatly contribute to diversifying gene expression. Recent studies have revealed the existence of alternative first exons, but most have involved mammalian genes, and as yet the regulation of usage of alternative first exons has not been clarified, especially in plants. RESULTS: We systematically identified putative alternative first exon transcripts in rice, verified the candidates using RT-PCR, and searched for the promoter elements that might regulate the alternative first exons. As a result, we detected a number of unreported alternative first exons, some of which are regulated in a tissue-specific manner. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: http://www.bioinfo.sfc.keio.ac.jp/research/intron.

Computational comparative analyses of alternative splicing regulation using full-length cDNA of various eukaryotes.

We previously reported a computational approach to infer alternative splicing patterns from Mus musculus full-length cDNA clones and microarray data. Although we predicted a large number of unreported splice variants, the general mechanisms regulating alternative splicing were yet unknown. In the present study, we compared alternative exons and constitutive exons in terms of splice-site strength and frequency of potential regulatory sequences. These regulatory features were further compared among five different species: Homo sapiens, M. musculus, Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, and Drosophila melanogaster. Solid statistical validations of our comparative analyses indicated that alternative exons have (1) weaker splice sites and (2) more potential regulatory sequences than constitutive exons. Based on our observations, we propose a combinatorial model of alternative splicing mechanisms, which suggests that alternative exons contain weak splice sites regulated alternatively by potential regulatory sequences on the exons.

Inferring alternative splicing patterns in mouse from a full-length cDNA library and microarray data.

Although many studies on alternative splicing of specific genes have been reported in the literature, the general mechanism that regulates alternative splicing has not been clearly understood. In this study, we systematically aligned each pair of the 21,076 cDNA sequences of Mus musculus, searched for putative alternative splicing patterns, and constructed a list of potential alternative splicing sites. Two cDNAs are suspected to be alternatively spliced and originating from a common gene if they share most of their region with a high degree of sequence homology, but parts of the sequences are very distinctive or deleted in either cDNA. The list contains the following information: (1) tissue, (2) developmental stage, (3) sequences around splice sites, (4) the length of each gapped region, and (5) other comments. The list is available at http://www.bioinfo.sfc.keio.ac.jp/intron. Our results have predicted a number of unreported alternatively spliced genes, some of which are expressed only in a specific tissue or at a specific developmental stage.