Microglia-neuron interactions promote chronic itch via the NLRP3-IL-1ß-GRPR axis.

BACKGROUND: Spinal astrocytes contribute to chronic itch via sensitization of itch-specific neurons expressing gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR). However, whether microglia-neuron interactions contribute to itch remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to explore how microglia interact with GRPR+ neurons and promote chronic itch. METHODS: RNA sequencing, quantitative real-time PCR, western blot, immunohistochemistry, RNAscope ISH, pharmacologic and genetic approaches were performed to examine the roles of spinal NLRP3 (The NOD-like receptor family, pyrin-containing domain 3) inflammasome activation and IL-1ß-IL1R1 signaling in chronic itch. Grpr-eGFP and Grpr KO mice were used to investigate microglia-GRPR+ neuron interactions. RESULTS: We observed NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1ß production in spinal microglia under chronic itch conditions. Blockade of microglial activation and the NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1ß axis attenuated chronic itch and neuronal activation. Type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) was expressed in GRPR+ neurons, which are essential for the development of chronic itch. Our studies also find that IL-1ß+ microglia are localized in close proximity to GRPR+ neurons. Consistently, intrathecal injection of IL1R1 antagonist or exogenous IL-1ß indicate that the IL-1ß-IL-1R1 signaling pathway enhanced the activation of GRPR+ neurons. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that the microglial NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1ß axis contributes to several different chronic itches triggered by small molecules and protein allergens from the environment and drugs. CONCLUSION: Our findings reveal a previously unknown mechanism in which microglia enhances the activation of GRPR+ neurons through the NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1ß/IL1R1 axis. These results will provide new insights into the pathophysiology of pruritus and novel therapeutic strategies for patients with chronic itch.

Synergistic activation of Src, ERK and STAT pathways in PBMCs for Staphylococcal enterotoxin A induced production of cytokines and chemokines.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) is a well-known superantigen and stimulates human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) involving in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disorders and cancer. OBJECTIVE: To better understand the biological activities of SEA and the possible intracellular mechanisms by which SEA plays its roles in conditions like staphylococcal inflammatory and/or autoimmune disorders and immunotherapy. METHODS: Recombinant SEA (rSEA) was expressed in a prokaryotic expression system and its effects on the cytokine and chemokine production was examined by Enzyme-linked Immunospot (ELISpot) Assay and ELISA analysis. RESULTS: In vitro experiments showed rSEA could significantly enhance secretion of a broad spectrum of cytokines and chemokines from PBMCs dose-dependently. Increased secretion of cytokines and chemokines from rSEA stimulated PBMCs was barely affected by C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) antagonist INCB3344. However, Src, ERK and STAT pathway inhibitors were able to successfully block the enhanced secretion of most of cytokines and chemokines produced by rSEA stimulated PBMCs. CONCLUSIONS: Our work suggested that rSEA serves as a potent stimulant of PBMCs, and induces the release of cytokines and chemokines through Src, ERK and STAT pathways upon a relatively independent network. Our work also strongly supported that Src, ERK and STAT signaling inhibitors could be effective therapeutic agents against diseases like toxic shock syndrome or infection by microbes resistant to antibiotics.

Necroptosis signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome cross-talking in epithelium facilitate Pseudomonas aeruginosa mediated lung injury.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa induced acute lung injury is such a serious risk to public health, but the pathological regulation remains unclear. Here, we reported that PA mediated epithelial necroptosis plays an important role in pathological process. Pharmacological and genomic ablation of necroptosis signaling ameliorate PA mediated ALI and pulmonary inflammation. Our results further proved NLRP3 inflammasome to involve in the process. Mechanism investigation revealed the cross-talking between inflammasome activation and necroptosis that MLKL-dependent necroptosis signaling promotes the change of mitochondrial membrane potential for the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is the important trigger for functional inflammasome activation. Furthermore, antioxidants such as Mito-TEMPO was confirmed to significantly restrain inflammasome activation in epithelium, resulting in a reduction in PA induced pulmonary inflammation. Taken together, our findings revealed that necroptosis-triggered NLRP3 inflammasome in epithelium plays a crucial role in PA mediated injury, which could be a potential therapeutic target for pulmonary inflammation.

DDR1 activation in macrophage promotes IPF by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome and macrophage reaction.

BACKGROUND: Discoidin Domain Receptor1 (DDR1) is a member of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) which have been reported to be associated with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), but the mechanism remains unclear. METHODS: Bleomycin-induced IPF mice model was performed in this study, and two DDR1 inhibitors were administered in vivo, to investigate the role of DDR1 in IPF. Lentivirus mediated DDR1-/- stable Raw264.7 macrophage cell line or DDR1 inhibitors treatment in vitro, to study the effect of DDR1 on inflammasome activation and macrophage responses. All of the mechanisms were further tested in the lung sections of IPF patients. RESULT: Here, we reported that: (i) Both specific inhibitors of DDR1 dramatically alleviated the symptoms of bleomycin-induced IPF models. (ii) Immunofluorescence staining showed that DDR1 signaling is activated in macrophages. In vivo molecular biological analysis proved that DDR1 activation exacerbates IPF inflammation through inflammasome signaling, macrophage activation, and M1/M2 polarization. (iii) Extracellular matrix (ECM) such as Collagen 1 activates DDR1 in macrophage cell line Raw264.7 in vitro, to mediate inflammasome activation and macrophage responses. (iv) DDR1 activation in macrophage was confirmed in IPF patients' samples, which could be one of the mechanisms for the pathogenesis of IPF. DISCUSSION: In this study, we firstly reported DDR1 activation in macrophages to play a role in IPF via inflammasome activation and macrophage responses. In addition, DDR1 inhibitors DDR1-IN-1 and DDR1-IN-2 exerted significant anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in IPF, all of which provide a potentially effective therapeutic medication for clinical IPF treatment.

GRPR/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase and NPRA/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Signaling Pathways Play a Critical Role in Spinal Transmission of Chronic Itch.

Intractable or recurrent chronic itch greatly reduces the patients' QOL and impairs their daily activities. In this study, we investigated whether there are certain key signaling molecules downstream of the recently identified peptides mediating itch in the spinal cord. RNA sequencing analysis of mouse spinal cord in chronic itch models induced by squaric acid dibutylester and imiquimod showed that extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 cascade is the most significantly upregulated gene cluster in both models. In four different mouse models of chronic itch, sustained ERK phosphorylation was detected mainly in spinal neurons, and MAPK/ERK kinase inhibitors significantly inhibited chronic itch in these models. Phosphorylated ERK was observed in the interneurons expressing the receptors of different neuropeptides for itch, including gastrin-releasing peptide receptor, natriuretic peptide receptor A, neuromedin B receptor, and sst2A. Blocking gastrin-releasing peptide receptor and natriuretic peptide receptor A by genetic approaches or toxins in mice significantly attenuated or ablated spinal phosphorylated ERK. When human embryonic kidney 293T cells transfected with these receptors were exposed to their respective agonists, ERK was the most significantly activated intracellular signaling molecule. Together, our work showed that phosphorylated ERK is a unique marker for itch signal transmission in the spinal cord and an attractive target for the treatment of chronic itch.

Spinal GRPR and NPRA Contribute to Chronic Itch in a Murine Model of Allergic Contact Dermatitis.

Recurrent and intractable chronic itch is a worldwide problem, but mechanisms, especially the neural mechanisms, underlying chronic itch still remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the peripheral and spinal mechanisms responsible for prolonged itch in a mouse model of allergic contact dermatitis induced by squaric acid dibutylester. We found that repeated exposure of mice to squaric acid dibutylester evoked persistent spontaneous scratching and significantly aberrant cutaneous and systemic immune responses lasting for weeks. Squaric acid dibutylester-induced itch requires both nonhistaminergic and histaminergic pathways, which are likely relayed by GRPR and NPRA in the spinal cord, respectively. Employing genetic, pharmacologic, RNAscope assay, and cell-specific ablation methods, we dissected a neural circuit for prolonged itch formed as Grpr+ neurons act downstream of Npr1+ neurons in the spinal cord. Taken together, our data suggested that targeting GRPR and NPRA may provide effective treatments for allergic contact dermatitis-associated chronic pruritus.