Neuromolecular imaging, a nanobiotechnology for Parkinson's disease: advancing pharmacotherapy for personalized medicine.

Evaluating each patient and animal as its own control achieves personalized medicine, which honors the hippocratic philosophy, explaining that "it is far more important to know what person has the disease than what disease the person has." Similarly, individualizing molecular signaling directly from the patient's brain in real time is essential for providing prompt, patient-based treatment as dictated by the point of care. Fortunately, nanotechnology effectively treats many neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, the new medicinal frontier for the discovery of therapy for Parkinson's disease is nanotechnology and nanobiotechnology. Indeed, the unique nanotechnology of neuromolecular imaging combined with the series of nanobiosensors enables continuous videotracking of molecular neurotransmitters in both the normal physiologic and disease states with long-term electrochemical operational stability. This nanobiotechnology is able to track a signal in real time with excellent temporal and spatial resolution directly from each patient's brain to a computer as subjects are behaving during movement, normal and/or dysfunctional including prion-like Parkinson's behavioral biometrics. Moreover, the molecular signaling performed by these nanobiosensors live streams directly online and originates from precise neuroanatomic brain sites such as, in this case, the dorsal striatum in basal ganglia. Thus, the nanobiotechnology studies discussed herein imaged neuromolecules with and without L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) in dorsal striatal basal ganglia neurons. Parkinsonian and non-Parkinsonian animals were video-tracked, and images were readily seen on a laptop via a potentiostat using a semiderivative electrical circuit. Administered L-DOPA doses were 50 and 100 mg/kg intraperitoneally (ip); the same experimental paradigm was used to image and then contrast data. Results showed that the baseline release of biogenic amine molecules was significantly above detection limits in non-Parkinsonian animals. After administration of L-DOPA, biogenic amines significantly increased in these non-Parkinson's animals. Nevertheless, it is intriguing to see that L-DOPA could not enable synaptic dopamine release in Parkinson's animals, thereby demonstrating that biogenic amines are biomarkers for Parkinson's disease. Biomarkers are biochemical, genetic, or molecular measures of biological reactions. Importantly, there were other significant biomarkers present in Parkinsonian animals and absent in non-Parkinsonian animals; these were peptide neurotransmitters that include dynorphin and somatostatin in the brain with detection limits of 40 nM for dynorphin and 37 nM for somatostatin (see Table 1). Furthermore, L-DOPA significantly increased these peptide biomarkers, dynorphin and somatostatin, in Parkinson's animals. Targeting biomarkers enables new diagnostic devices and treatments for Parkinson's disease through nanotechnology and nanobiotechnology.

Raltegravir thorough QT/QTc study: a single supratherapeutic dose of raltegravir does not prolong the QTcF interval.

Raltegravir is a novel HIV-1 integrase inhibitor with potent in vitro activity (IC(95) = 31 nM in 50% human serum). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-dummy, 3-period, single-dose crossover study was conducted; subjects received single oral doses of 1600 mg raltegravir, 400 mg moxifloxacin, and placebo. The upper limit of the 2-sided 90% confidence interval for the QTcF interval placebo-adjusted mean change from baseline of raltegravir was less than 10 ms at every time point. For the raltegravir and placebo groups, there were no QTcF values >450 ms or change from baseline values >30 ms. A mean C(max) of approximately 20 muM raltegravir was attained, approximately 4-fold higher than the C(max) at the clinical dose. Moxifloxacin demonstrated an increase in QTcF at the 2-, 3-, and 4-hour time points. Administration of a single supratherapeutic dose of raltegravir does not prolong the QTcF interval. A single supratherapeutic dose design may be appropriate for crossover thorough QTc studies.

Suppression of niacin-induced vasodilation with an antagonist to prostaglandin D2 receptor subtype 1.

Niacin (nicotinic acid) reduces cardiovascular events in patients with dyslipidemia. However, symptoms associated with niacin-induced vasodilation (e.g., flushing) have limited its use. Laropiprant is a selective antagonist of the prostaglandin D(2) receptor subtype 1 (DP1), which may mediate niacin-induced vasodilation. The aim of this proof-of-concept study was to evaluate the effects of laropiprant (vs placebo) on niacin-induced cutaneous vasodilation. Coadministration of laropiprant 30, 100, and 300 mg with extended-release (ER) niacin significantly lowered flushing symptom scores (by approximately 50% or more) and also significantly reduced malar skin blood flow measured by laser Doppler perfusion imaging. Laropiprant was effective after multiple doses in reducing symptoms of flushing and attenuating the increased malar skin blood flow induced by ER niacin. In conclusion, the DP1 receptor antagonist laropiprant was effective in suppressing both subjective and objective manifestations of niacin-induced vasodilation.

Determination of the HIV integrase inhibitor, MK-0518 (raltegravir), in human plasma using 96-well liquid-liquid extraction and HPLC-MS/MS.

An HPLC-MS/MS method was developed for the determination of MK-0518 (raltegravir), an HIV integrase inhibitor, in human plasma over the concentration range of 2-1000 ng/mL. Stable isotope labeled (13)C(6)-MK-0518 was used as an internal standard. The sample preparation procedure utilized liquid-liquid extraction with hexane:methylene chloride in the 96-well format with a 200 microL plasma sample size. The compounds were chromatographed on an Ace C(18) (50 x 3.0 mm, 3 microm, titanium frits) column with 42.5/57.5 (v/v %) 0.1mM EDTA in 0.1% formic acid/methanol mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Multiple reaction monitoring of the precursor-to-product ion pairs for MK-0518 (m/z 445-->109) and (13)C(6)-MK-0518 (m/z 451-->367) on an Applied Biosystem API 4000 HPLC-MS/MS was used for quantitation. Intraday precision of standard curve concentrations in five different lots of control plasma was within 3.2%, while accuracy ranged from 94.8 to 106.8%. The mean extraction recovery of spiked plasma samples was 87%. Quality control (QC) samples were stored at -20 degrees C. Initial within day analysis showed QC accuracy within 7.5% of nominal with precision of 3.1% or less. The plasma QC samples were demonstrated to be stable for up to 23 months at -20 degrees C. The method described has been used to support over 18 clinical studies during Phase I through III of clinical development.

Influence of cellular trafficking on protein synthesis inhibition of immunotoxins directed against the transferrin receptor.

Previously, a quantitative analysis that related protein synthesis inhibition of transferrin-toxin conjugates to the cellular trafficking of transferrin was proposed (P.T. Yazdi and R. M. Murphy, Cancer Res., 54: 6387-6394, 1994). Here, this work is extended to evaluate cellular trafficking of anti-transferrin receptor antibodies and protein synthesis inhibition kinetics of immunotoxins constructed from the same antibodies and the toxin gelonin. Cellular trafficking models for two monoclonal anti-transferrin receptor antibodies (5E9 and OKT9) in HeLa cells were developed. The two mAbs had similar trafficking parameters, which differed significantly from those for transferrin. Protein synthesis inhibition kinetics for immunotoxins constructed from 5E9 or OKT9 and gelonin were measured. Analysis of the data using our previously proposed relationship between protein synthesis and cellular trafficking indicated that the relationship is also valid for these new systems. The protein synthesis inhibition constants for 5E9-gelonin and OKT9-gelonin conjugates were similar to those for the transferrin-gelonin conjugate. These results suggest that it may be possible to predict the efficacy of gelonin immunotoxins from knowledge of the trafficking of the corresponding targeting agent. A sensitivity analysis showed which cellular trafficking parameters have the greatest influence on immunotoxin efficacy and are, therefore, the most likely to be profitably manipulated.

Dynamic model of ex vivo granulocytic kinetics to examine the effects of oxygen tension, pH, and interleukin-3.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluating kinetics in hematopoietic cultures is complicated by the distribution of cells over various stages of differentiation and by the presence of cells from different lineages. Thus, an observed response is an integral response from distributed cell populations. Growth factors and other parameters can greatly affect the lineage and maturation stage of the culture outcome. To resolve the kinetics and more clearly define the differential effects of O(2) tension (pO(2)), pH, and interleukin-3 (IL-3) on granulopoiesis, a mathematical model-based approach was undertaken. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Granulocytic differentiation is described within a continuous, deterministic framework in which cells develop from primitive granulocytic progenitors to mature neutrophils. The model predicts two distributed populations-quiescent and cycling cells-by incorporating rates of growth, death, differentiation, and transition between quiescence and active cycling. The response of these four model processes to changes in the culture environment was examined. RESULTS: Model simulations of experimental data revealed the following: 1) pO(2) effects are exerted only on the growth rate but not maturation times. 2) pH effects between pH 7.25 and 7.4 on growth and differentiation are coupled; however, with increasing pH values, especially at pH 7. 6, the death rate for cells in the early stages of differentiation becomes increasingly significant. 3) The absence of IL-3 increases the death rate for primitive cells only minimally but markedly enhances the rate of differentiation through the myeloblast window in the differentiation pathway. The combined effects of these environmental factors can be predicted based on changes in the model parameters derived from the individual effects. CONCLUSIONS: Experimental data combined with mathematical modeling can elucidate the mechanisms underlying the regulation of granulopoiesis by pO(2), pH, and IL-3. The model also can be readily adapted to evaluate the effects of other culture conditions. The increased understanding of experimental results gained with this approach can be used to modify culture conditions to optimize ex vivo production of neutrophil precursors.

A comparison of the pharmacokinetics of two different formulations of extended-release niacin.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare pharmacokinetic parameters of niacin extended-release tablets (NER uncoated) and niacin extended-release caplet formation (NER coated). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Twenty-five healthy male and female subjects were enrolled in a four-period, open-label, randomized, crossover study. Both NER uncoated and NER coated were given as 1 x 1000 mg or 2 x 500 mg tablets. Similarity of NER coated 1 x 1000 mg and NER uncoated 2 x 500 mg was declared if 90% confidence intervals for the geometric mean ratio (GMR) for nicotinuric acid (NUA) Cmax fell within the pre-specified bounds of [0.7, 1.43]. RESULTS: The GMRs for NUA Cmax demonstrated similarity in the pharmacokinetics of NER uncoated 2 x 500 mg, NER coated 1 x 1000 mg, and NER coated 2 x 500 mg. Although less stringent comparability bounds were prespecified for the primary pharmacokinetic endpoint (i.e., Cmax of plasma NUA), inspection of the primary comparison of interest indicated that a hypothesis with more stringent bioequivalence bounds of [0.8, 1.25] would have been satisfied. The NUA Cmax for NER uncoated 1 x 1000 mg was approximately 40% higher than that seen for the other three treatments. In contrast, total urinary excretion of niacin and its metabolites, an approximate measure of bioavailability, was similar for all four treatments. CONCLUSION: The pharmacokinetic profile of the original NER uncoated formulation dosed as 2 x 500 mg was similar to the new film-coated formulation, NER coated, dosed as 1 x 1000 mg.

Pharmacokinetics of raltegravir in individuals with UGT1A1 polymorphisms.

Raltegravir is a human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) integrase strand transfer inhibitor metabolized by glucuronidation via UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1). In this study, 30 subjects with a UGT1A1*28/*28 genotype (associated with decreased activity of UGT1A1) and 27 UGT1A1*1/*1 control subjects (matched by race, age, gender, and body mass index) received a single 400-mg dose of raltegravir after fasting. No serious adverse experiences were reported, and there were no discontinuations due to adverse experiences. The geometric mean ratio (GMR) (UGT1A1*28/*28 to UGT1A1*1/*1) and 90% confidence interval (CI) were 1.41 (0.96, 2.09) for raltegravir area under the concentration-time curve (AUC(0-infinity)), 1.40 (0.86, 2.28) for maximum plasma concentration (C(max)), and 1.91 (1.43, 2.55) for concentration at the 12-h time point (C(12 h)). No clinically important differences in time to maximum concentration (T(max)) or half-life were observed. Plasma concentrations of raltegravir are modestly higher in individuals with the UGT1A1*28/*28 genotype than in those with the UGT1A1*1/*1 genotype. This increase is not clinically significant, and therefore no dose adjustment of raltegravir is required for individuals with the UGT1A1*28/*28 genotype.

Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety of a prostaglandin D2 receptor antagonist.

Laropiprant is a selective antagonist of the prostaglandin D(2) (PGD(2)) receptor subtype 1 (DP1). Three double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled studies evaluated the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of single and multiple oral doses of laropiprant in healthy male volunteers. Single doses up to 900 mg and multiple doses up to 450 mg were generally well tolerated. Laropiprant exhibited dose-proportional pharmacokinetics. Oral absorption is rapid (T(max)=0.8-2.0 h) and the terminal half-life is approximately 12-18 h. The pharmacokinetics of laropiprant was not affected by food. Single doses of 6 mg and higher were effective in suppressing PGD(2)-induced cyclic AMP accumulation in platelets, demonstrating laropiprant target engagement with DP1. Laropiprant has detectable off-target antagonist effects at the thromboxane A(2) receptor but no clinically significant effect on collagen-induced platelet aggregation or bleeding times with multiple doses up to 200 mg.

Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of raltegravir after single and multiple doses in healthy subjects.

Raltegravir is a novel human immunodeficiency virus-1 integrase inhibitor with potent in vitro activity (95% inhibitory concentration (IC95)=33 nM in 50% human serum). Three double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, pharmacokinetic, safety, and tolerability studies were conducted: (1) single-dose escalation study (10-1,600 mg), (2) multiple-dose escalation study (100-800 mg q12 h x 10 days), and (3) single-dose female study (400 mg). Raltegravir was rapidly absorbed with a terminal half-life (t1/2) approximately 7-12 h. Approximately 7-14% of raltegravir was excreted unchanged in urine. Area under the curve (AUC)(0-infinity) was similar between male and female subjects. After multiple-dose administration, steady state was achieved within 2 days; there was little to modest accumulation of raltegravir. Trough levels were >33 nM for dose levels of 100 mg and greater. Raltegravir is generally well tolerated at doses of up to 1,600 mg/day given for up to 10 days and exhibits a pharmacokinetic profile supportive of twice-daily dosing with multiple doses of 100 mg and greater achieving trough levels >33 nM.

The effect of MK-0524, a prostaglandin D(2) receptor antagonist, on prostaglandin D (2)-induced nasal airway obstruction in healthy volunteers.

INTRODUCTION: Nasal congestion in allergic rhinitis results from tissue edema and vasodilatation in the nasal mucosa. Of the mediators released by mast cells in response to allergens, prostaglandin (PG) D(2) is regarded as the most potent inducer of nasal congestion. Intranasal administration of PGD(2) reproduces the nasal blockade experienced by patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR) via its action on the PGD(2) (DP) receptor to induce nasal vasodilatation. Intranasal challenge with PGD(2) can be a useful tool for evaluating DP-receptor antagonists. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this study was to examine the ability of MK-0524, a DP receptor antagonist in development for the treatment of SAR, to block PGD(2) induced nasal congestion in healthy volunteers. METHODS: To this end, a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, 3-period study was performed in 15 healthy subjects. During each period, subjects received MK-0524 25 mg, MK-0524 100 mg or placebo qd for 3 days. Twenty-four hours following the last dose, nasal provocations with PGD(2) were performed to determine the PD(75), which is the intranasal dose of PGD(2) that provokes a 75% increase in baseline total nasal airway resistance as performed by active anterior rhinomanometry. RESULTS: Following treatment with MK-0524, the PD(75) (mean+/-SD) was significantly shifted from 15.8 +/- 18.3 mug/nostril during the placebo period to more than 512 mug/nostril both following the 25- and 100-mg (maximum challenge dose tested) dose regimen. CONCLUSION: Whether this >45 fold increase in PD(75) will induce a clinically meaningful effect of MK-0524 will require clinical study in participants with SAR.

Coupled cellular trafficking and diffusional limitations in delivery of immunotoxins to multicell tumor spheroids.

Immunotoxins have the potential to be powerful tools for selective cell killing, but their lack of clinical success against solid tumors indicates a need to better understand factors which limit immunotoxin transport in three-dimensional systems. In this work, a previously developed model which related immunotoxin toxicity to cellular trafficking in a single cell was coupled with a term accounting for diffusive transport of immunotoxin in a solid tumor sphere. This created a mathematical model which is capable of simulating the biological response of multicell tumor spheroids (MTS) to immunotoxin treatment. The model was used to predict the kinetics of protein synthesis inhibition in MTS treated with transferrin receptor-targeted immunotoxins as a function of immunotoxin concentration and toxin choice. HeLa cells were grown as MTS and treated with immunotoxins constructed from the anti-transferrin receptor antibody OKT9 and the toxins gelonin or CRM107, and the average protein synthesis inhibition and growth rates were measured. With no fitted parameters, the mathematical model quantitatively predicted the experimental observations. Immunotoxins were generally less effective against MTS than monolayer cells at equivalent conditions; for OKT9-gelonin at high concentrations this decrease in efficacy was attributed primarily to heterogeneous receptor distribution in MTS whereas for OKT9-CRM107 the decrease was caused primarily by a large barrier to penetration of the immunotoxin into the spheroid. The experimentally verified model was used to define the conditions which lead to large penetration barriers. In general, transport barriers in MTS become more important as immunotoxins become more effective against cells grown as monolayers. The proposed model is unique in its ability to predict toxicity in MTS directly, and is an important step toward understanding immunotoxin effect on tumors in vivo.

Simple microscopic theory of Amontons's laws for static friction.

A microscopic theory for the ubiquitous phenomenon of static friction is presented. Interactions between two surfaces are modeled by an energy penalty that increases exponentially with the degree of surface overlap. The resulting static friction is proportional to load, in accordance with Amontons's laws. However, the friction coefficient between bare surfaces vanishes as the area of individual contacts grows, except in the rare case of commensurate surfaces. An area independent friction coefficient is obtained for any surface geometry when an adsorbed layer of mobile atoms is introduced between the surfaces. The predictions from our simple analytic model are confirmed by detailed molecular dynamics simulations.

Quantitative analysis of protein synthesis inhibition and recovery in CRM107 immunotoxin-treated HeLa cells.

Previously a mathematical model was proposed that quantitatively related protein synthesis inhibition kinetics of antitransferrin receptor-gelonin immunotoxins to the cellular trafficking of the targeting agent. That work is here extended to describe protein synthesis inhibition kinetics of immunotoxins containing the diphtheria toxin mutant CRM107. CRM107 differs from gelonin in both translocation and ribosomal inactivation mechanisms. Targeting agents used were antitransferrin monoclonal antibodies 5E9 and OKT9, OKT9Fab, and transferrin. CRM107 conjugates inhibited protein synthesis at substantially lower concentrations than gelonin conjugates; this effect was attributed to substantially higher translocation rates for CRM107. However, under certain conditions, CRM107 immunotoxin-treated cells were able to recover completely; this behavior was never observed with gelonin immunotoxins. To quantitatively capture this phenomenon, extracellular and cytosolic degradation of the toxin as well as growth-related recovery from toxin-induced damage were incorporated into the mathematical model. Translocation and cytosolic degradation rate constants were determined for each immunotoxin. Unlike the gelonin conjugates, the translocation rate of CRM107 conjugates depended on the targeting molecule. This provided indirect evidence that CRM107 remains disulfide linked to the targeting agent for at least part of the translocation process. Although the CRM107 conjugates all had higher translocation rates and inhibited protein synthesis at lower concentrations than the gelonin conjugates, the cells' ability to recover from protein synthesis inhibition at low immunotoxin concentrations limits the utility of CRM107 conjugates for targeted cell killing.

Modeling pO(2) distributions in the bone marrow hematopoietic compartment. I. Krogh's model.

Human bone marrow (BM) is a tissue of complex architectural organization, which includes granulopoietic loci, erythroblastic islets, and lymphocytic nodules. Oxygen tension (pO(2)) is an important determinant of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation. Thus, understanding the impact of the BM architectural organization on pO(2) levels in extravascular hematopoietic tissue is an important biophysical problem. However, currently it is impossible to measure pO(2) levels and their spatial variations in the BM. Homogeneous Kroghian models were used to estimate pO(2) distribution in the BM hematopoietic compartment (BMHC) and to conservatively simulate pO(2)-limited cellular architectures. Based on biophysical data of hematopoietic cells and characteristics of BM physiology, we constructed a tissue cylinder solely occupied by granulocytic progenitors (the most metabolically active stage of the most abundant cell type) to provide a physiologically relevant limiting case. Although the number of possible cellular architectures is large, all simulated pO(2) profiles fall between two extreme cases: those of homogeneous tissues with adipocytes and granulocytic progenitors, respectively. This was illustrated by results obtained from a parametric criterion derived for pO(2) depletion in the extravascular tissue. Modeling results suggest that stem and progenitor cells experience a low pO(2) environment in the BMHC.

Modeling pO(2) distributions in the bone marrow hematopoietic compartment. II. Modified Kroghian models.

Hematopoietic cells of various lineages are organized in distinct cellular architectures in the bone marrow hematopoietic compartment (BMHC). The homogeneous Kroghian model, which deals only with a single cell type, may not be sufficient to accurately describe oxygen transfer in the BMHC. Thus, for cellular architectures of physiological significance, more complex biophysical-transport models were considered and compared against simulations using the homogeneous Kroghian model. The effects of the heterogeneity of model parameters on the oxygen tension (pO(2)) distribution were examined using the multilayer Kroghian model. We have also developed two-dimensional Kroghian models to simulate several cellular architectures in which a cell cluster (erythroid cluster) or an individual cell (megakaryocyte or adipocyte) is located in the BMHC predominantly occupied by mature granulocytes. pO(2) distributions in colony-type cellular arrangements (erythroblastic islets, granulopoietic loci, and lymphocytic nodules) in the BMHC were also evaluated by modifying the multilayer Kroghian model. The simulated results indicate that most hematopoietic progenitors experience low pO(2) values, which agrees with the finding that low pO(2) promotes the expansion of various hematopoietic progenitors. These results suggest that the most primitive stem cells, which are located even further away from BM sinuses, are likely located in a very low pO(2) environment.

An extended point-area deconvolution approach for assessing drug input rates.

PURPOSE: To describe an extended point-area deconvolution approach for evaluating drug input rates based on the application of piecewise cubic polynomial functions. METHODS: Both the nonimpulse response data and the impulse reference data were independently represented by the piecewise cubic polynomials to obtain interpolations, numerical integration, and reduced step size for the staircase input rates. A moving average algorithm was employed to compute the input rate estimates. The method was illustrated using data from preclinical and human studies. Simulations were used to examine the effects of data noise. RESULTS: In all cases examined, the piecewise cubic interpolation functions combined with the moving average algorithm yielded estimates that were reasonable and acceptable. Compared to the standard point-area approach based on the trapezoidal rule, the present method resulted in estimates that were closer to the expected values. CONCLUSIONS: The point-area deconvolution analysis is one of the preferred approaches in assessing pharmacokinetic and biopharmaceutic data when it is undesirable to assume the functional forms of the input processes. The present method provides improved performance and greater flexibility of this approach.