S-nitrosylation of beta-catenin by eNOS-derived NO promotes VEGF-induced endothelial cell permeability.

Disruption of adherens junctions between endothelial cells results in compromised endothelial barrier function and in altered angiogenesis. Nitric oxide (NO) produced by endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) is essential for increased vascular permeability induced by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). However, the molecular mechanisms by which NO modulates endothelial permeability remain elusive. Here, we show that, within adherens junctions, beta-catenin is a substrate for S-nitrosylation by NO. Stimulation of endothelial cells with VEGF induces S-nitrosylation of beta-catenin, which is dependent on expression and activity of eNOS. Furthermore, VEGF-induced S-nitrosylation of beta-catenin is inhibited in eNOS(-/-) mice. We identify Cys619, located within the VE-cadherin interaction site, as the major S-nitrosylation locus in response to VEGF. Inhibition of S-nitrosylation at Cys619 prevents NO-dependent dissociation of beta-catenin from VE-cadherin and disassembly of adherens junction complexes and inhibits VEGF-stimulated endothelial permeability. Thus, we identify S-nitrosylation of beta-catenin as a modulator of intercellular contacts between endothelial cells.

[Dmt(1)]DALDA analogues with enhanced µ opioid agonist potency and with a mixed µ/κ opioid activity profile.

Analogues of [Dmt(1)]DALDA (H-Dmt-d-Arg-Phe-Lys-NH2; Dmt=2',6'-dimethyltyrosine), a potent µ opioid agonist peptide with mitochondria-targeted antioxidant activity, were prepared by replacing Phe(3) with various 2',6'-dialkylated Phe analogues, including 2',6'-dimethylphenylalanine (Dmp), 2',4',6'-trimethylphenylalanine (Tmp), 2'-isopropyl-6'-methylphenylalanine (Imp) and 2'-ethyl-6'-methylphenylalanine (Emp), or with the bulky amino acids 3'-(1-naphthyl)alanine (1-Nal), 3'-(2-naphthyl)alanine (2-Nal) or Trp. Several compounds showed significantly increased µ agonist potency, retained µ receptor selectivity and are of interest as drug candidates for neuropathic pain treatment. Surprisingly, the Dmp(3)-, Imp(3)-, Emp(3)- and 1-Nal(3)-containing analogues showed much increased κ receptor binding affinity and had mixed µ/κ properties. In these cases, molecular dynamics studies indicated conformational preorganization of the unbound peptide ligands due to rotational restriction around the C(ß)C(γ) bond of the Xxx(3) residue, in correlation with the observed κ receptor binding enhancement. Compounds with a mixed µ/κ opioid activity profile are known to have therapeutic potential for treatment of cocaine abuse.

'Carba'-carfentanil (trans isomer): a µ opioid receptor (MOR) partial agonist with a distinct binding mode.

There is strong evidence to indicate that a positively charged nitrogen of endogenous and exogenous opioid ligands forms a salt bridge with the Asp residue in the third transmembrane helix of opioid receptors. To further examine the role of this electrostatic interaction in opioid receptor binding and activation, we synthesized 'carba'-analogues of the highly potent µ opioid analgesic carfentanil (3), in which the piperidine nitrogen was replaced with a carbon. The resulting trans isomer (8b) showed reduced, but still significant MOR binding affinity (Ki(µ)=95.2nM) with no MOR versus DOR binding selectivity and was a MOR partial agonist. The cis isomer (8a) was essentially inactive. A MOR docking study indicated that 8b bound to the same binding pocket as parent 3, but its binding mode was somewhat different. A re-evaluation of the uncharged morphine derivative N-formylnormorphine (9) indicated that it was a weak MOR antagonist showing no preference for MOR over KOR. Taken together, the results indicate that deletion of the positively charged nitrogen in µ opioid analgesics reduces MOR binding affinity by 2-3 orders of magnitude and may have pronounced effects on the intrinsic efficacy and on the opioid receptor selectivity profile.

N-terminal guanidinylation of TIPP (Tyr-Tic-Phe-Phe) peptides results in major changes of the opioid activity profile.

Derivatives of peptides of the TIPP (Tyr-Tic-Phe-Phe; Tic=1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid) family containing a guanidino (Guan) function in place of the N-terminal amino group were synthesized in an effort to improve their blood-brain barrier permeability. Unexpectedly, N-terminal amidination significantly altered the in vitro opioid activity profiles. Guan-analogues of TIPP-related δ opioid antagonists showed δ partial agonist or mixed δ partial agonist/µ partial agonist activity. Guanidinylation of the mixed µ agonist/δ antagonists H-Dmt-Tic-Phe-Phe-NH2 (DIPP-NH2) and H-Dmt-TicΨ[CH2NH]Phe-Phe-NH2 (DIPP-NH2[Ψ]) converted them to mixed µ agonist/δ agonists. A docking study revealed distinct positioning of DIPP-NH2 and Guan-DIPP-NH2 in the δ receptor binding site. Lys(3)-analogues of DIPP-NH2 and DIPP-NH2[Ψ] (guanidinylated or non-guanidinylated) turned out to be mixed µ/κ agonists with δ antagonist-, δ partial agonist- or δ full agonist activity. Compounds with some of the observed mixed opioid activity profiles have therapeutic potential as analgesics with reduced side effects or for treatment of cocaine addiction.

Raising the ceiling of diastereoselectivity in hydrogen transfer on acyclic radicals.

We report here that the monodentate complexation of Me2AlCl to an ester group significantly enhances the selectivity of hydrogen transfer on acyclic radicals flanked by both an ester functionality and a stereogenic center, leading to C-2,C-3-anti products with high diastereoselectivity. In certain cases improved ratios were obtained using bulkier aluminum Lewis acid such as MAD (methylaluminum-di(di-2,6-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoxide). Electron spin resonance studies on these acyclic radicals indicate that Lewis acid complexation leads to conformational changes in the radicals. The stereochemistry of the preferred enolate radicals complexed with Lewis acids and their impact on the acyclic transition states involved are suggested.

Equipotent enantiomers of cyclic opioid peptides at µ opioid receptor.

Head-to-tail cyclized analogues of the µ opioid receptor (MOR) agonist tetrapeptides DALDA (H-Tyr-D-Arg-Phe-Lys-NH2 and [Dmt1]DALDA (H-Dmt-D-Arg-Phe-Lys-NH2; Dmt = 2',6'-dimethyltyrosine) and their enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) were synthesized and pharmacologically characterized in vitro. Three pairs of enantiomeric cyclic peptides with both mirror-image isomers having equipotent MOR binding affinities but different binding affinities at the δ and κ opioid receptors were identified. The cyclic peptide enantiomers c[-D-Arg-Phe-Lys-Tyr-] (1) and c[-Arg-D-Phe-D-Lys-D-Tyr-] (2) showed nearly identical MOR binding affinity (1 - 2 nM) and equipotent MOR antagonist activity. The results of a MOR docking study indicated a very similar binding mode of the two enantiomers with nearly complete spatial overlap of the peptide ring structures and side chain interactions with the same MOR residues. Compounds 1 and 2 represent the first pair of enantiomeric G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) ligands having multiple chiral centers, with both optical antipodes showing equal, low nanomolar receptor binding affinity.

Dicarba analogues of the cyclic enkephalin peptides H-Tyr-c[D-Cys-Gly-Phe-D(or L)-Cys]NH(2) retain high opioid activity.

Dicarba analogues of the cyclic opioid peptides H-Tyr-c[d-Cys-Gly-Phe-d(or l)-Cys]NH2 were synthesized on solid phase by substituting allylglycines for the cysteines and cyclization by ring-closing metathesis between the side chains of the allylglycine residues. Mixtures of cis and trans isomers of the resulting olefinic peptides were obtained, and catalytic hydrogenation yielded the saturated -CH2-CH2- bridged peptides. The dicarba analogues retained high mu and delta agonist potencies. Remarkably, the trans isomer of H-Tyr-c[d-Allylgly-Gly-Phe-l-Allylgly]NH2 was a mu agonist/delta agonist with subnanomolar potency at both receptors.

Cyclic dermorphin tetrapeptide analogues obtained via ring-closing metathesis.

The dermorphin-derived cyclic tetrapeptide analogues H-Tyr-c[D-Cys-Phe-Cys]NH(2) and H-Tyr-c[D-Cys-Phe-D-Cys]NH(2) are opioid agonists at the mu and delta receptor. To enhance the metabolic stability of these peptides, we replaced the disulfide bridge with a bis-methylene moiety. This was achieved by solid-phase synthesis of the linear precursor peptide containing allylglycine residues in place of the Cys residues, followed by ring-closing metathesis. In the case of the peptide with L-configuration in the 4-position both the cis and the trans isomer of the resulting olefinic peptides were formed, whereas the cis isomer only was obtained with the peptide having the D-configuration in position 4. Catalytic hydrogenation yielded the saturated -CH(2)-CH(2)- bridged peptides. In comparison with the cystine-containing parent peptides, all olefinic peptides showed significantly reduced mu and delta agonist potencies in the guinea pig ileum and mouse vas deferens assays. The -CH(2)-CH(2)-bridged peptide with l-configuration in the 4-position was equipotent with its cystine-containing parent in both assays, whereas the bis-methylene analogue with D-configuration in position 4 was 10-27-fold less potent compared to its parent. The effect of the disulfide replacements with the -CH=CH- and -CH(2)-CH(2)- moieties on the conformational behavior of these peptides was examined by theoretical conformational analysis which provided plausible explanations in terms of structural parameters for the observed changes in opioid activity.

A Cyclic Tetrapeptide ("Cyclodal") and Its Mirror-Image Isomer Are Both High-Affinity µ Opioid Receptor Antagonists.

Head-to-tail cyclization of the µ opioid receptor (MOR) agonist [Dmt1]DALDA (H-Dmt-d-Arg-Phe-Lys-NH2 (9; Dmt = 2',6'-dimethyltyrosine) resulted in a highly active, selective MOR antagonist, c[-d-Arg-Phe-Lys-Dmt-] (1) ("cyclodal"), with subnanomolar binding affinity. A docking study of cyclodal using the crystal structure of MOR in the inactive form showed a unique binding mode with the two basic residues of the ligand forming salt bridges with the Asp127 and Glu229 receptor residues. Cyclodal showed high plasma stability and was able to cross the blood-brain barrier to reverse morphine-induced, centrally mediated analgesia when given intravenously. Surprisingly, the mirror-image isomer (optical antipode) of cyclodal, c[-Arg-d-Phe-d-Lys-d-Dmt-] (2), also turned out to be a selective MOR antagonist with 1 nM binding affinity, and thus, these two compounds represent the first example of mirror image opioid receptor ligands with both optical antipodes having high binding affinity. Reduction of the Lys-Dmt peptide bond in cyclodal resulted in an analogue, c[-d-Arg-Phe-LysΨ[CH2NH]Dmt-] (8), with MOR agonist activity.

Angiotensin II vs its type I antagonists: conformational requirements for receptor binding assessed from NMR spectroscopic and receptor docking experiments.

The conformations of three angiotensin II (AII) peptide antagonists ([Sar1]-AII(1-7)-NH(2), [Sar1,Val5,Ala8]-AII and the AII antipeptide, [Glu1,Gly2,Val5,Val8]-AII) were assessed in a lipid medium. A common backbone turn was identified through modeling and spectroscopic studies. The His6 residue acted as a pivoting point beyond which each peptide adopted two distinct conformations. One principle conformer resembled that previously determined for AII while the other was designated as an AII antagonist like conformer. A computational overlay between the nonpeptide antagonist, Losartan, and both the AII and the AII like conformation of [Sar1,Val5,Ala8]-AII revealed common pharmacophoric points with RMS deviations between 1 and 1.5 A. Both the AII conformer and the AII antagonist like conformer of [Sar1,Val5,Ala8]-AII were docked into a model of the AT(1) receptor. Receptor residue Phe289 and Asp281 provided good contact points for both peptides. Some differences were also noted. The terminal carboxyl of AII contacted Lys199 of the receptor while that of [Sar1,Val5,Ala8]-AII bridged Arg23 at the top of helix 1. The Asp1 side chain of AII interacted with His183 of the receptor.

A new approach to explore the binding space of polysaccharide-based ligands: selectin antagonists.

The discovery of molecules that interfere with the binding of a ligand to a receptor remains a topic of great interest in medicinal chemistry. Herein, we report that a monosaccharide unit of a polysaccharide ligand can be replaced advantageously by a conformationally locked acyclic molecular entity. A cyclic component of the selectin ligand Sialyl Lewis(x), GlcNAc, is replaced by an acyclic tether, tartaric esters, which link two saccharide units. The conformational bias of this acyclic tether originates from the minimization of intramolecular dipole-dipole interaction and the gauche effect. The evaluation of the binding of these derivatives to P-selectin was measured by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. The results obtained in our pilot study suggest that the discovery of tunable tethers could facilitate the exploration of the carbohydrate recognition domain of various receptors.

Boc and Gas1 each form distinct Shh receptor complexes with Ptch1 and are required for Shh-mediated cell proliferation.

Hedgehog (Hh) proteins regulate important developmental processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation. Although Patched acts as the main Hh receptor in Drosophila, Hh signaling absolutely requires the additional Hh-binding proteins Ihog and Boi. Here we show that, unexpectedly, cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) lacking Boc and Cdon, the vertebrate orthologs of Ihog and Boi, still proliferate in response to Hh. This is because in their absence, Gas1, an Hh-binding protein not present in Drosophila, mediates Hh signaling. Consistently, only CGNPs lacking all three molecules-Boc, Cdon, and Gas1-have a complete loss of Hh-dependent proliferation. In a complementary manner, we find that a mutated Hh ligand that binds Patched1 but not Boc, Cdon, or Gas1 cannot activate Hh signaling. Together, this demonstrates an absolute requirement for Boc, Cdon, and Gas1 in Hh signaling and reveals a distinct requirement for ligand-binding components that distinguishes the vertebrate and invertebrate Hh receptor systems.

N-methylated cyclic enkephalin analogues retain high opioid receptor binding affinity.

In an effort to improve the bioavailability of the non-selective, cyclic enkephalin analogues H-Dmt-c[d-Cys-Gly-Phe-d(or L)-Cys]NH(2) (Dmt = 2',6'-dimethyltyrosine), analogues N-methylated at the Phe(4) and/or Cys(5) residue were synthesized. In comparison with the non-methylated parent peptides, all mono- and N-di-methylated analogues in general retained high binding affinities at all three opioid receptors and high opioid agonist potencies in functional opioid activity assays. The results indicate that the progressive conformational restriction in these compounds upon mono- and di-N-methylation did not significantly affect the in vitro opioid activity profile. A low-energy conformer identified for the conformationally most restricted analogue of the series, H-Dmt-c[D-Cys-Gly-Phe(NMe)-L-Cys(NMe)]NH(2) (6), showed good spatial overlap of the essential pharmacophoric moieties with those in the proposed mu receptor-bound conformation of the mu-selective opioid peptide JOM-6 [H-Tyr-c(S-Et-S)[D-Cys-Phe-D-Pen]NH(2)] (Pen = penicillamine) [Mosberg M.I. and Fowler C.B. (2002) J Peptide Res; 60:329-335], in agreement with the moderate mu selectivity determined for this compound. An analogue of 6 containing (2S)-2-methyl-3-(2,6-dimethyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid [(2S)-Mdp] in place of Dmt(1) was an opioid antagonist with quite high opioid receptor binding affinities and can be expected to show improved bioavailability because of its further increased lipophilicity and reduced hydrogen-bonding capacity.

"Carba"-analogues of fentanyl are opioid receptor agonists.

There is evidence to indicate that the Asp residue in the third transmembrane helix (TMH) of opioid receptors forms a salt bridge with the positively charged nitrogen of endogenous and exogenous opioid ligands. To further examine the role of this electrostatic interaction in receptor binding and activation, we synthesized "carba"-analogues of a published fentanyl analogue containing a 3-(guanidinomethyl)-benzyl group in place of the phenyl moiety attached to the ethylamido group (C. Dardonville et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2006, 14, 6570-6580 (1)), in which the piperidine ring nitrogen was replaced with a carbon. As expected, the resulting cis and trans isomers (8a and 8b) showed reduced mu and kappa opioid receptor binding affinities as compared to 1 but, surprisingly, retained opioid full agonist activity with about half the potency of leucine-enkephalin in the guinea pig ileum assay. In conjunction with performed receptor docking studies, these results indicate that the electrostatic interaction of the protonated nitrogen in the piperidine ring of fentanyl analogues with the Asp residue in the third TMH is not a conditio sine qua non for opioid receptor activation.

Cyclic opioid peptide agonists and antagonists obtained via ring-closing metathesis.

The opioid peptide H-Tyr-c[D-Cys-Phe-Phe-Cys]NH(2) cyclized via a methylene dithiother is a potent and selective mu opioid agonist (Przydial M.J. et al., J Peptide Res, 66, 2005, 255). Dicarba analogues of this peptide with Tyr, 2',6'-dimethyltyrosine (Dmt), 3-[2,6-dimethyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid (Dhp) or (2S)-2-methyl-3-(2,6-dimethyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid [(2S)-Mdp] in the 1-position were prepared. The peptides were synthesized on solid-phase by substituting d-allylglycine and (2S)-2-amino-5-hexenoic acid in position 2 and 5, respectively, followed by ring-closing metathesis. Mixtures of cis and trans isomers of the resulting olefinic peptides were obtained, and catalytic hydrogenation yielded the saturated -CH(2)-CH(2)- bridged peptides. All six Tyr(1)- and Dmt(1)-dicarba analogues retained high mu and delta opioid agonist potency and showed only slight or no preference for mu over delta receptors. As expected, the six Dhp(1)- and (2S)-Mdp(1)-dicarba analogues turned out to be mu opioid antagonists but, surprisingly, displayed a range of different efficacies (agonism, partial agonism or antagonism) at the delta receptor. The obtained results indicate that the mu versus delta receptor selectivity and the efficacy at the delta receptor of these cyclic peptides depend on distinct conformational characteristics of the 15-membered peptide ring structure, which may affect the spatial positioning of the exocyclic residue and of the Phe(3) and Phe(4) side chains.

Agonist vs antagonist behavior of delta opioid peptides containing novel phenylalanine analogues in place of Tyr(1).

The novel phenylalanine analogues 4'-[N-((4'-phenyl)phenethyl)carboxamido]phenylalanine (Bcp) and 2',6'-dimethyl-4'-[N-((4'-phenyl)phenethyl)carboxamido]phenylalanine (Dbcp) were substituted for Tyr(1) in the delta opioid antagonist TIPP (H-Tyr-Tic-Phe-Phe-OH; Tic = tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid). Unexpectedly, [Bcp(1)]TIPP was a potent, selective delta opioid agonist, whereas [Dbcp(1)]TIPP retained high delta antagonist activity. Receptor docking studies indicated similar binding modes for the two peptides except for the biphenylethyl moiety which occupied distinct receptor subsites. The dipeptide H-Dbcp-Tic-OH was a highly selective delta antagonist with subnanomolar delta receptor affinity.

Protein stability and transcription factor complex assembly determined by the SCL-LMO2 interaction.

Gene expression programs are established by networks of interacting transcription factors. The basic helix-loop-helix factor SCL and the LIM-only protein LMO2 are components of transcription factor complexes that are essential for hematopoiesis. Here we show that LMO2 and SCL are predominant interaction partners in hematopoietic cells and that this interaction occurs through a conserved interface residing in the loop and helix 2 of SCL. This interaction nucleates the assembly of SCL complexes on DNA and is required for target gene induction and for the stimulation of erythroid and megakaryocytic differentiation. We also demonstrate that SCL determines LMO2 protein levels in hematopoietic cells and reveal that interaction with SCL prevents LMO2 degradation by the proteasome. We propose that the SCL-LMO2 interaction couples protein stabilization with higher order protein complex assembly, thus providing a powerful means of modulating the stoichiometry and spatiotemporal activity of SCL complexes. This interaction likely provides a rate-limiting step in the transcriptional control of hematopoiesis and leukemia, and similar mechanisms may operate to control the assembly of diverse protein modules.

Single amino acid substitution in the PC1/3 propeptide can induce significant modifications of its inhibitory profile toward its cognate enzyme.

The proprotein convertase PC1/3 is synthesized as a large precursor that undergoes proteolytic processing of the signal peptide, the propeptide and ultimately the COOH-terminal tail, to generate the mature form. The propeptide is essential for protease folding, and, although cleaved by an autocatalytic process, it remains associated with the mature form acting as an auto-inhibitor of PC1/3. To further assess the role of certain residues in its interaction with its cognate enzyme, we performed an alanine scan on two PC1/3 propeptide potential cleavable sites ((50)RRSRR(54) and (61)KR(62)) and an acidic region (65)DDD(67) conserved among species. Upon incubation with PC1/3, the ensuing peptides exhibit equal inhibitory potency, lower potency, or higher potency than the wild-type propeptide. The K(i) values calculated varied between 0.15 and 16.5 nm. All but one mutant exhibited a tight binding behavior. To examine the specificity of mutants, we studied their reactivity toward furin, a closely related convertase. The mutation of certain residues also affects the inhibition behavior toward furin yielding propeptides exhibiting K(i) ranging from 0.2 to 24 nm. Mutant propeptides exhibited against each enzyme either different mode of inhibition, enhanced selectivity in the order of 40-fold for one enzyme, or high potency with no discrimination. Hence, we demonstrate through single amino acid substitution that it is feasible to modify the inhibitory behavior of propeptides toward convertases in such a way as to increase or decrease their potency, modify their inhibitory mechanisms, as well as increase their selectivity.

Photolabeling study of the ligand binding domain of natriuretic peptide receptor A: development of a model.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) are loop-shaped peptidic hormones that have multiple actions on body fluid homeostasis. Their physiological effects are mediated through the activation of their receptor, natriuretic peptide receptor A (NPRA). This receptor is a member of the membrane guanylyl cyclase family and catalyzes cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) production following its activation. To map the binding site of human NPRA, we applied the methionine proximity assay method to this receptor. We photolabeled NPRA mutants, presenting a single methionine in the binding domain of the receptor, and used benzoylphenylalanine- (Bpa-) substituted peptides at positions 0, 3, 18, 26, and 28 of the ligand. We identified that the N-terminus of the peptide is interacting with the region between Asp(177) and Val(183) of the receptor. Arg(3) is interacting in the vicinity of Phe(172). Leu(18) binds close to Val(116). Phe(26) binds in the vicinity of His(195), and the C-terminal Tyr(28) is located close to Met(173). We next proceeded with photolabeling of a dual Bpa-substituted peptide and showed that the N-terminus and Leu(18) interact with opposite receptor subunits. On the basis of our results, a molecular model of peptide-bound NPRA was developed by homology modeling with the C-type natriuretic peptide- (CNP-) bound natriuretic peptide receptor C (NPRC) crystal structure. The model has been validated by molecular dynamics simulations. Our work provides a rational basis for interpreting and predicting natriuretic peptide binding to the human NPRA.