A role for the primary cilium in Notch signaling and epidermal differentiation during skin development.

Ciliogenesis precedes lineage-determining signaling in skin development. To understand why, we performed shRNA-mediated knockdown of seven intraflagellar transport proteins (IFTs) and conditional ablation of Ift-88 and Kif3a during embryogenesis. In both cultured keratinocytes and embryonic epidermis, all of these eliminated cilia, and many (not Kif3a) caused hyperproliferation. Surprisingly and independent of proliferation, ciliary mutants displayed defects in Notch signaling and commitment of progenitors to differentiate. Notch receptors and Notch-processing enzymes colocalized with cilia in wild-type epidermal cells. Moreover, differentiation defects in ciliary mutants were cell autonomous and rescued by activated Notch (NICD). By contrast, Shh signaling was neither operative nor required for epidermal ciliogenesis, Notch signaling, or differentiation. Rather, Shh signaling defects in ciliary mutants occurred later, arresting hair follicle morphogenesis in the skin. These findings unveil temporally and spatially distinct functions for primary cilia at the nexus of signaling, proliferation, and differentiation.

Apoptosis and tissue thinning contribute to symmetric cell division in the developing mouse epidermis in a nonautonomous way.

Mitotic spindle orientation (SO) is a conserved mechanism that governs cell fate and tissue morphogenesis. In the developing epidermis, a balance between self-renewing symmetric divisions and differentiative asymmetric divisions is necessary for normal development. While the cellular machinery that executes SO is well characterized, the extrinsic cues that guide it are poorly understood. Here, we identified the basal cell adhesion molecule (BCAM), a ß1 integrin coreceptor, as a novel regulator of epidermal morphogenesis. In utero RNAi-mediated depletion of Bcam in the mouse embryo did not hinder ß1 integrin distribution or cell adhesion and polarity. However, Bcam depletion promoted apoptosis, thinning of the epidermis, and symmetric cell division, and the defects were reversed by concomitant overexpression of the apoptosis inhibitor Xiap. Moreover, in mosaic epidermis, depletion of Bcam or Xiap induced symmetric divisions in neighboring wild-type cells. These results identify apoptosis and epidermal architecture as extrinsic cues that guide SO in the developing epidermis.

Disruption of the nectin-afadin complex recapitulates features of the human cleft lip/palate syndrome CLPED1.

Cleft palate (CP), one of the most common congenital conditions, arises from failures in secondary palatogenesis during embryonic development. Several human genetic syndromes featuring CP and ectodermal dysplasia have been linked to mutations in genes regulating cell-cell adhesion, yet mouse models have largely failed to recapitulate these findings. Here, we use in utero lentiviral-mediated genetic approaches in mice to provide the first direct evidence that the nectin-afadin axis is essential for proper palate shelf elevation and fusion. Using this technique, we demonstrate that palatal epithelial conditional loss of afadin (Afdn) - an obligate nectin- and actin-binding protein - induces a high penetrance of CP, not observed when Afdn is targeted later using Krt14-Cre We implicate Nectin1 and Nectin4 as being crucially involved, as loss of either induces a low penetrance of mild palate closure defects, while loss of both causes severe CP with a frequency similar to Afdn loss. Finally, expression of the human disease mutant NECTIN1W185X causes CP with greater penetrance than Nectin1 loss, suggesting this alteration may drive CP via a dominant interfering mechanism.

BP180 dysfunction triggers spontaneous skin inflammation in mice.

BP180, also known as collagen XVII, is a hemidesmosomal component and plays a key role in maintaining skin dermal/epidermal adhesion. Dysfunction of BP180, either through genetic mutations in junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB) or autoantibody insult in bullous pemphigoid (BP), leads to subepidermal blistering accompanied by skin inflammation. However, whether BP180 is involved in skin inflammation remains unknown. To address this question, we generated a BP180-dysfunctional mouse strain and found that mice lacking functional BP180 (termed ΔNC16A) developed spontaneous skin inflammatory disease, characterized by severe itch, defective skin barrier, infiltrating immune cells, elevated serum IgE levels, and increased expression of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP). Severe itch is independent of adaptive immunity and histamine, but dependent on increased expression of TSLP by keratinocytes. In addition, a high TSLP expression is detected in BP patients. Our data provide direct evidence showing that BP180 regulates skin inflammation independently of adaptive immunity, and BP180 dysfunction leads to a TSLP-mediated itch. The newly developed mouse strain could be a model for elucidation of disease mechanisms and development of novel therapeutic strategies for skin inflammation and BP180-related skin conditions.

LGN plays distinct roles in oral epithelial stratification, filiform papilla morphogenesis and hair follicle development.

Oral epithelia protect against constant challenges by bacteria, viruses, toxins and injury while also contributing to the formation of ectodermal appendages such as teeth, salivary glands and lingual papillae. Despite increasing evidence that differentiation pathway genes are frequently mutated in oral cancers, comparatively little is known about the mechanisms that regulate normal oral epithelial development. Here, we characterize oral epithelial stratification and describe multiple distinct functions for the mitotic spindle orientation gene LGN (Gpsm2) in promoting differentiation and tissue patterning in the mouse oral cavity. Similar to its function in epidermis, apically localized LGN directs perpendicular divisions that promote stratification of the palatal, buccogingival and ventral tongue epithelia. Surprisingly, however, in dorsal tongue LGN is predominantly localized basally, circumferentially or bilaterally and promotes planar divisions. Loss of LGN disrupts the organization and morphogenesis of filiform papillae but appears to be dispensable for embryonic hair follicle development. Thus, LGN has crucial tissue-specific functions in patterning surface ectoderm and its appendages by controlling division orientation.

Aspm sustains postnatal cerebellar neurogenesis and medulloblastoma growth in mice.

Alterations in genes that regulate brain size may contribute to both microcephaly and brain tumor formation. Here, we report that Aspm, a gene that is mutated in familial microcephaly, regulates postnatal neurogenesis in the cerebellum and supports the growth of medulloblastoma, the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor. Cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) express Aspm when maintained in a proliferative state by sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling, and Aspm is expressed in Shh-driven medulloblastoma in mice. Genetic deletion of Aspm reduces cerebellar growth, while paradoxically increasing the mitotic rate of CGNPs. Aspm-deficient CGNPs show impaired mitotic progression, altered patterns of division orientation and differentiation, and increased DNA damage, which causes progenitor attrition through apoptosis. Deletion of Aspm in mice with Smo-induced medulloblastoma reduces tumor growth and increases DNA damage. Co-deletion of Aspm and either of the apoptosis regulators Bax or Trp53 (also known as p53) rescues the survival of neural progenitors and reduces the growth restriction imposed by Aspm deletion. Our data show that Aspm functions to regulate mitosis and to mitigate DNA damage during CGNP cell division, causes microcephaly through progenitor apoptosis when mutated, and sustains tumor growth in medulloblastoma.

Asymmetric cell divisions promote Notch-dependent epidermal differentiation.

Stem and progenitor cells use asymmetric cell divisions to balance proliferation and differentiation. Evidence from invertebrates shows that this process is regulated by proteins asymmetrically distributed at the cell cortex during mitosis: Par3-Par6-aPKC, which confer polarity, and Gα(i)-LGN/AGS3-NuMA-dynein/dynactin, which govern spindle positioning. Here we focus on developing mouse skin, where progenitor cells execute a switch from symmetric to predominantly asymmetric divisions concomitant with stratification. Using in vivo skin-specific lentiviral RNA interference, we investigate spindle orientation regulation and provide direct evidence that LGN (also called Gpsm2), NuMA and dynactin (Dctn1) are involved. In compromising asymmetric cell divisions, we uncover profound defects in stratification, differentiation and barrier formation, and implicate Notch signalling as an important effector. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of applying RNA interference in vivo to mammalian systems, and the ease of uncovering complex genetic interactions, here to gain insights into how changes in spindle orientation are coupled to establishing proper tissue architecture during skin development.

Automated Immunofluorescence Staining for Analysis of Mitotic Stages and Division Orientation in Brain Sections.

Microcephaly often results from mitotic defects in neuronal progenitors, frequently by decreasing proliferation rates or shifting cell fates. During neurogenesis, oriented cell division-the molecular control of mitotic spindle positioning to control the axis of division-represents an important mechanism to balance expansion of the progenitor pool with generating cellular diversity. While mostly studied in the context of cortical development, more recently, spindle orientation has emerged as a key player in the formation of other brain regions such as the cerebellum. Here we describe methods to perform automated dual-color fluorescent immunohistochemistry on murine cerebellar sections using the mitotic markers phospho-Histone H3 and Survivin, and detail analytical and statistical approaches to display and compare division orientation datasets.

Processing Neonatal Mouse Brains for Immunohistochemical Analysis: As Required for Including Spindle Orientation Analysis and Analysis of DNA Damage and Apoptosis.

Analyzing sections of neonatal mouse brain using immunohistochemistry can inform microcephaly pathogenesis, but obtaining and staining high-quality sections can be challenging. The neonatal brain shows less structural integrity than the adult brain. As a result, embedding technique must be optimized to allow sections without cracks or other anatomic disruptions. Moreover, paraffin embedding, which maximized tissue preservation, can reduce antigenicity of proteins in the embedded tissues. We describe an optimized embedding technique and antigen recovery technique that allows successful sectioning and immunohistochemical staining.

AGS3 antagonizes LGN to balance oriented cell divisions and cell fate choices in mammalian epidermis.

Oriented cell divisions balance self-renewal and differentiation in stratified epithelia such as the skin epidermis. During peak epidermal stratification, the distribution of division angles among basal keratinocyte progenitors is bimodal, with planar and perpendicular divisions driving symmetric and asymmetric daughter cell fates, respectively. An apically restricted, evolutionarily conserved spindle orientation complex that includes the scaffolding protein LGN/Pins/Gpsm2 plays a central role in promoting perpendicular divisions and stratification, but why only a subset of cell polarize LGN is not known. Here, we demonstrate that the LGN paralog, AGS3/Gpsm1, is a novel negative regulator of LGN and inhibits perpendicular divisions. Static and ex vivo live imaging reveal that AGS3 overexpression displaces LGN from the apical cortex and increases planar orientations, while AGS3 loss prolongs cortical LGN localization and leads to a perpendicular orientation bias. Genetic epistasis experiments in double mutants confirm that AGS3 operates through LGN. Finally, clonal lineage tracing shows that LGN and AGS3 promote asymmetric and symmetric fates, respectively, while also influencing differentiation through delamination. Collectively, these studies shed new light on how spindle orientation influences epidermal stratification.

Loss of p120 catenin and links to mitotic alterations, inflammation, and skin cancer.

Tumor formation involves epigenetic modifications and microenvironmental changes as well as cumulative genetic alterations encompassing somatic mutations, loss of heterozygosity, and aneuploidy. Here, we show that conditional targeting of p120 catenin in mice leads to progressive development of skin neoplasias associated with intrinsic NF-kappaB activation. We find that, similarly, squamous cell carcinomas in humans display altered p120 and activated NF-kappaB. We show that epidermal hyperproliferation arising from p120 loss can be abrogated by IkappaB kinase 2 inhibitors. Although this underscores the importance of this pathway, the role of NF-kappaB in hyperproliferation appears rooted in its impact on epidermal microenvironment because as p120-null keratinocytes display a growth-arrested phenotype in culture. We trace this to a mitotic defect, resulting in unstable, binucleated cells in vitro and in vivo. We show that the abnormal mitoses can be ameliorated by inhibiting RhoA, the activity of which is abnormally high. Conversely, we can elicit such mitotic defects in control keratinocytes by elevating RhoA activity. The ability of p120 deficiency to elicit mitotic alterations and chronic inflammatory responses, that together may facilitate the development of genetic instability in vivo, provides insights into why it figures so prominently in skin cancer progression.

A role for Nr-CAM in the patterning of binocular visual pathways.

Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons diverge within the optic chiasm to project to opposite sides of the brain. In mouse, contralateral RGCs are distributed throughout the retina, whereas ipsilateral RGCs are restricted to the ventrotemporal crescent (VTC). While repulsive guidance mechanisms play a major role in the formation of the ipsilateral projection, little is known about the contribution of growth-promoting interactions to the formation of binocular visual projections. Here, we show that the cell adhesion molecule Nr-CAM is expressed by RGCs that project contralaterally and is critical for the guidance of late-born RGCs within the VTC. Blocking Nr-CAM function causes an increase in the size of the ipsilateral projection and reduces neurite outgrowth on chiasm cells in an age- and region-specific manner. Finally, we demonstrate that EphB1/ephrin-B2-mediated repulsion and Nr-CAM-mediated attraction comprise distinct molecular programs that each contributes to the proper formation of binocular visual pathways.

Cell Biology: Pardon the Intrusion.

Whilst tissues form during development, some cells are extruded from epithelial monolayers. Rather than dying or differentiating, a new study shows that displaced cells can reintegrate after dividing. Surprisingly, this 'intrusion' pathway shares common features with axon guidance.

Telophase correction refines division orientation in stratified epithelia.

During organogenesis, precise control of spindle orientation balances proliferation and differentiation. In the developing murine epidermis, planar and perpendicular divisions yield symmetric and asymmetric fate outcomes, respectively. Classically, division axis specification involves centrosome migration and spindle rotation, events occurring early in mitosis. Here, we identify a novel orientation mechanism which corrects erroneous anaphase orientations during telophase. The directionality of reorientation correlates with the maintenance or loss of basal contact by the apical daughter. While the scaffolding protein LGN is known to determine initial spindle positioning, we show that LGN also functions during telophase to reorient oblique divisions toward perpendicular. The fidelity of telophase correction also relies on the tension-sensitive adherens junction proteins vinculin, α-E-catenin, and afadin. Failure of this corrective mechanism impacts tissue architecture, as persistent oblique divisions induce precocious, sustained differentiation. The division orientation plasticity provided by telophase correction may enable progenitors to adapt to local tissue needs.

Heterogeneity within Stratified Epithelial Stem Cell Populations Maintains the Oral Mucosa in Response to Physiological Stress.

Stem cells in stratified epithelia are generally believed to adhere to a non-hierarchical single-progenitor model. Using lineage tracing and genetic label-retention assays, we show that the hard palatal epithelium of the oral cavity is unique in displaying marked proliferative heterogeneity. We identify a previously uncharacterized, infrequently-dividing stem cell population that resides within a candidate niche, the junctional zone (JZ). JZ stem cells tend to self-renew by planar symmetric divisions, respond to masticatory stresses, and promote wound healing, whereas frequently-dividing cells reside outside the JZ, preferentially renew through perpendicular asymmetric divisions, and are less responsive to injury. LRIG1 is enriched in the infrequently-dividing population in homeostasis, dynamically changes expression in response to tissue stresses, and promotes quiescence, whereas Igfbp5 preferentially labels a rapidly-growing, differentiation-prone population. These studies establish the oral mucosa as an important model system to study epithelial stem cell populations and how they respond to tissue stresses.

An Immunocompetent Mouse Model of HPV16(+) Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

The incidence of human papilloma virus (HPV)-associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is increasing and implicated in more than 60% of all oropharyngeal carcinomas (OPSCCs). Although whole-genome, transcriptome, and proteome analyses have identified altered signaling pathways in HPV-induced HNSCCs, additional tools are needed to investigate the unique pathobiology of OPSCC. Herein, bioinformatics analyses of human HPV(+) HNSCCs revealed that all tumors express full-length E6 and identified molecular subtypes based on relative E6 and E7 expression levels. To recapitulate the levels, stoichiometric ratios, and anatomic location of E6/E7 expression, we generated a genetically engineered mouse model whereby balanced expression of E6/E7 is directed to the oropharyngeal epithelium. The addition of a mutant PIK3CAE545K allele leads to the rapid development of pre-malignant lesions marked by immune cell accumulation, and a subset of these lesions progress to OPSCC. This mouse provides a faithful immunocompetent model for testing treatments and investigating mechanisms of immunosuppression.

Ephrin-B2 and EphB1 mediate retinal axon divergence at the optic chiasm.

In animals with binocular vision, retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons either cross or avoid the midline at the optic chiasm. Here, we show that ephrin-Bs in the chiasm region direct the divergence of retinal axons through the selective repulsion of a subset of RGCs that express EphB1. Ephrin-B2 is expressed at the mouse chiasm midline as the ipsilateral projection is generated and is selectively inhibitory to axons from ventrotemporal (VT) retina, where ipsilaterally projecting RGCs reside. Moreover, blocking ephrin-B2 function in vitro rescues the inhibitory effect of chiasm cells and eliminates the ipsilateral projection in the semiintact mouse visual system. A receptor for ephrin-B2, EphB1, is found exclusively in regions of retina that give rise to the ipsilateral projection. EphB1 null mice exhibit a dramatically reduced ipsilateral projection, suggesting that this receptor contributes to the formation of the ipsilateral retinal projection, most likely through its repulsive interaction with ephrin-B2.

Molecular Subtype-Specific Immunocompetent Models of High-Grade Urothelial Carcinoma Reveal Differential Neoantigen Expression and Response to Immunotherapy.

High-grade urothelial cancer contains intrinsic molecular subtypes that exhibit differences in underlying tumor biology and can be divided into luminal-like and basal-like subtypes. We describe here the first subtype-specific murine models of bladder cancer and show that Upk3a-CreERT2; Trp53L/L; PtenL/L; Rosa26LSL-Luc (UPPL, luminal-like) and BBN (basal-like) tumors are more faithful to human bladder cancer than the widely used MB49 cells. Following engraftment into immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice, BBN tumors were more responsive to PD-1 inhibition than UPPL tumors. Responding tumors within the BBN model showed differences in immune microenvironment composition, including increased ratios of CD8+:CD4+ and memory:regulatory T cells. Finally, we predicted and confirmed immunogenicity of tumor neoantigens in each model. These UPPL and BBN models will be a valuable resource for future studies examining bladder cancer biology and immunotherapy.Significance: This work establishes human-relevant mouse models of bladder cancer. Cancer Res; 78(14); 3954-68. ©2018 AACR.

The optic chiasm as a midline choice point.

The mouse optic chiasm is a model for axon guidance at the midline and for analyzing how binocular vision is patterned. Recent work has identified several molecular players that influence the binary decision that retinal ganglion cells make at the optic chiasm, to either cross or avoid the midline. An ephrin-B localized to the midline, together with an EphB receptor and a zinc-finger transcription factor expressed exclusively in the ventrotemporal retina where ipsilaterally projecting retinal ganglion cells are located, comprise a molecular program for the uncrossed pathway. In addition, the mechanisms for axon divergence in the optic chiasm are discussed in the context of other popular models for midline axon guidance.

Mena and vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein are required for multiple actin-dependent processes that shape the vertebrate nervous system.

Ena/vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) proteins regulate the geometry of the actin cytoskeleton, thereby influencing cell morphology and motility. Analysis of invertebrate mutants implicates Ena/VASP function in several actin-dependent processes such as axon and dendritic guidance, cell migration, and dorsal closure. In vertebrates, genetic analysis of Ena/VASP function is hindered by the broad and overlapping expression of the three highly related family members Mena (Mammalian enabled), VASP, and EVL (Ena-VASP like). Mice deficient in either Mena or VASP exhibit subtle defects in forebrain commissure formation and platelet aggregation, respectively. In this study, we investigated the consequence of deleting both Mena and VASP. Mena-/-VASP-/- double mutants die perinatally and display defects in neurulation, craniofacial structures, and the formation of several fiber tracts in the CNS and peripheral nervous system.