Development and characterization of the mode-of-action of inhibitory and agonist peptides targeting the voltage-gated sodium channel SCN1B beta-subunit.

Cardiac arrhythmia treatment is a clinical challenge necessitating safer and more effective therapies. Recent studies have highlighted the role of the perinexus, an intercalated disc nanodomain enriched in voltage-gated sodium channels including both Nav1.5 and ß1 subunits, adjacent to gap junctions. These findings offer insights into action potential conduction in the heart. A 19-amino acid SCN1B (ß1/ß1B) mimetic peptide, ßadp1, disrupts VGSC beta subunit-mediated adhesion in cardiac perinexii, inducing arrhythmogenic changes. We aimed to explore ßadp1's mechanism and develop novel SCN1B mimetic peptides affecting ß1-mediated adhesion. Using patch clamp assays in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes and electric cell substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) in ß1-expressing cells, we observed ßadp1 maintained inhibitory effects for up to 5 h. A shorter peptide (LQLEED) based on the carboxyl-terminus of ßadp1 mimicked this inhibitory effect, while dimeric peptides containing repeated LQLEED sequences paradoxically promoted intercellular adhesion over longer time courses. Moreover, we found a link between these peptides and ß1-regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) - a signaling pathway effecting gene transcription including that of VGSC subunits. ßadp1 increased RIP continuously over 48 h, while dimeric agonists acutely boosted RIP for up to 6 h. In the presence of DAPT, an RIP inhibitor, ßadp1's effects on ECIS-measured intercellular adhesion was reduced, suggesting a relationship between RIP and the peptide's inhibitory action. In conclusion, novel SCN1B (ß1/ß1B) mimetic peptides are reported with the potential to modulate intercellular VGSC ß1-mediated adhesion, potentially through ß1 RIP. These findings suggest a path towards the development of anti-arrhythmic drugs targeting the perinexus.

Attitudes of autistic adults toward genetic testing for autism.

Genetic testing for autism has been a controversial topic within the autistic community. Opinions regarding the benefits, risks, and limitations of genetic testing often differ between autistic people, researchers, and healthcare providers. The present study sought to understand the beliefs, attitudes, and intentions to pursue genetic testing of autistic adults and compare perspectives of autistic people who have had genetic testing with those who have not. An international sample of 173 autistic adults (19 [11%] who had previously undergone autism-related genetic testing) completed an online survey with questions assessing beliefs, attitudes, and intentions to pursue genetic testing. Beliefs and attitudes about genetic testing varied widely across the sample. Autistic individuals who had received prior genetic testing had much more positive beliefs about autism-related genetic testing (d = 0.87, 95% CI [0.37, 1.36]) and attitudes toward genetic testing (d = 1.14, 95% CI [0.66, 1.61]) compared to those who had not received such testing, although there were no meaningful differences between those same groups regarding beliefs about genetic testing unrelated to autism (d = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.45, 0.49], p = 0.93). Intention to genetically test oneself or one's (hypothetical) children was also significantly predicted by autism-specific beliefs, attitudes, and prior genetic testing status. A large majority of the sample (78.6%) also agreed that autistic individuals would benefit from contact with a genetic counselor in certain situations. These findings suggest that the autistic community does not have a singular view of genetic testing, and for those Autistic individuals who are interested in pursuing genetic testing for themselves or a family member, genetic counselors have the potential to play a key role in clinical care.

Parent and Provider Differences in Ratings of Mental Health and Neurodevelopmental Concerns in Children with Neurologic Disorders.

Children with neurologic disorders face increased risks for mental health and neurodevelopmental conditions, with information often limited to parent report. To better understand mental health and neurodevelopmental needs in this population, a retrospective chart review of a convenience sample of children with neurologic disorders referred for a neuropsychological evaluation was conducted in the present study to explore interrater agreement between care team members (referring providers, parents, pediatric neuropsychologist). Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from the evaluation reports of 129 youth (9:0-17:11 years old; 51.2% of female sex) with neurologic disorders (i.e., 38.0% traumatic brain injury, 27.1% epilepsy, 14.7% premature birth, 7.8% pediatric cancer, 3.9% prenatal substance exposure, and 14.7% other) who completed an evaluation in 2019. Over half the youth were flagged for unmet neurodevelopmental and mental health concerns and analyses revealed low interrater agreement for mental health concerns (κ = .324), better agreement for neurodevelopmental concerns (κ = .511), and low sensitivity of referring providers (Se = .326) and parents (Se = .366). One-way analyses of variance uncovered important factors (e.g., symptom severity, adaptive skills) that may account for missed concerns. Findings guide recommendations to strengthen methods for understanding mental health and/or neurodevelopmental concerns in children with neurologic disorders.

Commentary: The construct validity of 'camouflaging' in autism: psychometric considerations and recommendations for future research - reflection on Lai et al. (2020).

Research on the construct of 'camouflaging' in autism and its sociodemographic/clinical correlates has far outpaced the work being done to establish the construct validity of camouflaging and its distinction from other similar constructs. The imprecision with which camouflaging is defined and measured has serious implications for future research on this topic, and unless additional effort is made to produce reliable and valid measurements of this construct, researchers will not be able to meaningfully assess important questions such as whether the effort of camouflaging one's behavior contributes to increased mental health difficulties. By reviewing the psychometric strengths and weaknesses of various operationalizations of camouflaging, this commentary highlights a pressing need for further measure validation in this area. Specific methodological guidance is provided for researchers interested in rigorously testing the validity of putative camouflaging measures.

Prevalence of Decreased Sound Tolerance (Hyperacusis) in Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Hyperacusis, defined as decreased tolerance to sound at levels that would not trouble most individuals, is frequently observed in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Despite the functional impairment attributable to hyperacusis, little is known about its prevalence or natural history in the ASD population. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis estimating the current and lifetime prevalence of hyperacusis in children, adolescents, and adults with ASD. By precisely estimating the burden of hyperacusis in the ASD population, the present study aims to enhance recognition of this particular symptom of ASD and highlight the need for additional research into the causes, prevention, and treatment of hyperacusis in persons on the spectrum. DESIGN: We searched PubMed and ProQuest to identify peer-reviewed articles published in English after January 1993. We additionally performed targeted searches of Google Scholar and the gray literature, including studies published through May 2020. Eligible studies included at least 20 individuals with diagnosed ASD of any age and reported data from which the proportion of ASD individuals with current and/or lifetime hyperacusis could be derived. To account for multiple prevalence estimates derived from the same samples, we utilized three-level Bayesian random-effects meta-analyses to estimate the current and lifetime prevalence of hyperacusis. Bayesian meta-regression was used to assess potential moderators of current hyperacusis prevalence. To reduce heterogeneity due to varying definitions of hyperacusis, we performed a sensitivity analysis on the subset of studies that ascertained hyperacusis status using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), a structured parent interview. RESULTS: A total of 7783 nonduplicate articles were screened, of which 67 were included in the review and synthesis. Hyperacusis status was ascertained in multiple ways across studies, with 60 articles employing interviews or questionnaires and seven using behavioral observations or objective measures. The mean (range) age of samples in the included studies was 7.88 years (1.00 to 34.89 years). The meta-analysis of interview/questionnaire measures (k(3) = 103, nASD = 13,093) estimated the current and lifetime prevalence of hyperacusis in ASD to be 41.42% (95% CrI, 37.23 to 45.84%) and 60.58% (50.37 to 69.76%), respectively. A sensitivity analysis restricted to prevalence estimates derived from the ADI-R (k(3) = 25, nASD = 5028) produced similar values. The estimate of current hyperacusis prevalence using objective/observational measures (k(3) = 8, nASD = 488) was 27.30% (14.92 to 46.31%). Heterogeneity in the full sample of interview/questionnaire measures was substantial but not significantly explained by any tested moderator. However, prevalence increased sharply with increasing age in studies using the ADI-R (BF10 = 93.10, R2Het = 0.692). CONCLUSIONS: In this meta-analysis, we found a high prevalence of current and lifetime hyperacusis in individuals with ASD, with a majority of individuals on the autism spectrum experiencing hyperacusis at some point in their lives. The high prevalence of hyperacusis in individuals with ASD across the lifespan highlights the need for further research on sound tolerance in this population and the development of services and/or interventions to reduce the burden of this common symptom.

New focus on cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel ß1 and ß1B: Novel targets for treating and understanding arrhythmias?

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are transmembrane protein complexes that are vital to the generation and propagation of action potentials in nerve and muscle fibers. The canonical VGSC is generally conceived as a heterotrimeric complex formed by two classes of membrane-spanning subunit-an α-subunit (pore forming) and two ß-subunits (non-pore forming). NaV1.5 is the main sodium channel α-subunit of mammalian ventricle, with lower amounts of other α-subunits, including NaV1.6, being present. There are four ß-subunits, ß1-ß4, encoded by four genes, SCN1B-SCN4B, each of which are expressed in cardiac tissues. Recent studies suggest that in addition to assignments in channel gating and trafficking, products of Scn1b may have novel roles in conduction of action potential in the heart and intracellular signaling. This includes evidence that the ß-subunit extracellular Amino-terminal domain facilitates adhesive interactions in intercalated discs and that its Carboxyl-terminal region is a substrate for a regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) signaling pathway-with a Carboxyl-terminal peptide generated by ß1 RIP trafficked to the nucleus and altering transcription of various genes, including NaV1.5. In addition to ß1, the Scn1b gene encodes for an alternative splice variant, ß1B, which contains an identical extracellular adhesion domain to ß1, but has a unique Carboxyl-terminus. Whilst ß1B is generally understood to be a secreted variant, evidence indicates that when co-expressed with NaV1.5, it is maintained at the cell membrane, suggesting potential unique roles for this understudied protein. In this review, we focus on what is known on the two ß-subunit variants encoded by Scn1b in heart, with particular focus on recent findings and the questions raised by this new information. We also explore data that indicate ß1 and ß1B may be attractive targets for novel anti-arrhythmic therapeutics.

The Social Validity of Behavioral Interventions: Seeking Input from Autistic Adults.

Many in the autistic community have expressed concerns regarding the use of behavioral interventions with autistic children, suggesting that these interventions may not be socially valid. Though behavioral interventions have evolved to be more naturalistic and child-centered, little structured research has been done to explicitly seek autistic perspectives on the acceptability of specific components of behavioral interventions. Autistic adults (N = 235) were recruited online to take the Autism Intervention Attitudes Scale (AIAS), a questionnaire designed to gather feedback on common intervention goals and practices. Results indicate that participants find goals and practices that highlight quality of life, safety, and autistic interactions acceptable, while those that focus on normalization based on neurotypical standards are not. An exploratory graph analysis revealed three communities of goals ("uncontroversial goals", "controversial goals", and "social goals"). Comparison between naturalistic and structured intervention components additionally showed that autistic participants favored naturalistic strategies. These findings are in line with known criticisms of behavioral intervention from autistic adults, but also provide more information on the specific ways in which behavioral interventions can be reformed. This information can guide professionals in the development of appropriate goals and decisions around intervention planning.

Measurement matters: A commentary on the state of the science on patient reported outcome measures (PROMs) in autism research.

High quality science relies upon psychometrically valid and reliable measurement, yet very few Patient Reported Outcome Measures (PROMs) have been developed or thoroughly validated for use with autistic individuals. The present commentary summarizes the current state of autism PROM science, based on discussion at the Special Interest Group (SIG) at the 2022 International Society for Autism Research (INSAR) Annual Meeting and collective expertise of the authors. First, we identify current issues in autism PROM research including content and construct operationalization, informant-structure, measure accessibility, and measure validation and generalization. We then enumerate barriers to conducting and disseminating this research, such as a lack of guidance, concerns regarding funding and time, lack of accessible training and professionals with psychometric skills, difficulties collecting large representative samples, and challenges with dissemination. Lastly, we offer future priorities and resources to improve PROMs in autism research including a need to continue to evaluate and develop PROMs for autistic people using robust methods, to prioritize diverse and representative samples, to expand the breadth of psychometric properties and techniques, and to consider developing field specific guidelines. We remain extremely optimistic about the future directions of this area of autism research. This work is well positioned to have an immense, positive impact on our scientific understanding of autism and the everyday lives of autistic people and their families.

Diversity of Research Participant Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in Communication Sciences and Disorders: A Systematic Review and Quantitative Synthesis of American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Publications in 2020.

Purpose: One manifestation of systemic inequities in communication sciences and disorders (CSD) is the chronic underreporting and underrepresentation of sex, gender, race, and ethnicity in research. The present study characterized recent demographic reporting practices and representation of participants across CSD research. Methods: We systematically reviewed and extracted key reporting and participant data from empirical studies conducted in the United States (US) with human participants published in the year 2020 in journals by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA; k = 407 articles comprising a total n = 80,058 research participants, search completed November 2021). Sex, gender, race, and ethnicity were operationalized per National Institutes of Health guidelines (National Institutes of Health, 2015a, 2015b). Results: Sex or gender was reported in 85.5% of included studies; race was reported in 33.7%; and ethnicity was reported in 13.8%. Sex and gender were clearly differentiated in 3.4% of relevant studies. Where reported, median proportions for race and ethnicity were significantly different from the US population, with underrepresentation noted for all non-White racial groups and Hispanic participants. Moreover, 64.7% of studies that reported sex or gender and 67.2% of studies that reported race or ethnicity did not consider these respective variables in analyses or discussion. Conclusion: At present, research published in ASHA journals frequently fails to report key demographic data summarizing the characteristics of participants. Moreover, apparent gaps in representation of minoritized racial and ethnic groups threaten the external validity of CSD research and broader health care equity endeavors in the US. Although our study is limited to a single year and publisher, our results point to several steps for readers that may bring greater accountability, consistency, and diversity to the discipline.

Measuring subjective quality of life in autistic adults with the PROMIS global-10: Psychometric study and development of an autism-specific scoring method.

LAY ABSTRACT: Quality of Life an outcome that both researchers and autistic advocates agree is extremely important to consider when implementing services, interventions, and supports for autistic people. However, there has been little research on the topic of how quality of life can best be measured in autistic people or whether existing quality of life questionnaires are appropriate for use in the autistic population. This study aimed to validate an established quality of life measure, the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Global-10, in a large sample of autistic adults recruited online. We created a new way to score the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Global-10 scale and generate a "General quality of life" score specific to autistic adults. This new score performed very well in this sample, showing very little measurement error and relating in expected ways to similar constructs, such as physical health and emotional distress. Exploratory analyses found that lower quality of life was associated with female sex and self-identification as a sexual or gender minority (i.e. LGBTQ + identity). These findings suggest that the new Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Global-10 quality of life score is a reliable and valid measure of quality of life in autistic adults, although additional studies are necessary to further explore its measurement properties in other subsets of the autistic population, such as individuals with intellectual disabilities. This measure is freely available for use as an outcome in both research and clinical practice, and an online score calculator is available to support the use of this measure in real-world applications.

The INSAR Community Collaborator Request: Using community-academic partnerships to enhance outcomes of participatory autism research.

Participatory approaches, in which researchers work together with members of the autism community (e.g., autistic people, family members, caregivers, or other stakeholders) to design, conduct, and disseminate research, have become increasingly prominent within the field of autism research over the past decade. Despite growing academic and community interest in conducting participatory studies, stakeholder collaboration remains infrequent in autism research, at least partially due to systemic barriers. To help reduce barriers to engaging in participatory autism research, the International Society for Autism Research (INSAR) Autistic Researchers Committee has launched the INSAR Community Collaborator Request (ICCR; https://www.autism-insar.org/page/iccr), a platform on the INSAR website that allows autism researchers conducting participatory research to seek out stakeholder collaborators from the autism community (including both autistic people and their family members/caregivers, as relevant to a given research project). Interested stakeholders also have the opportunity to subscribe to ICCR posts, allowing them to be alerted of new opportunities for collaboration and potentially increasing their involvement in autism research. Overall, the ICCR provides a venue to connect autism researchers with potential community collaborators, reducing barriers to participatory autism research and increasing the frequency of successful community-academic partnerships within the field. We are hopeful that in the long term, such changes will lead to greater alignment between research outputs and the goals of the greater autism community, and consequently an increase in the overall quality and relevance of autism research.

Forwarding the Science of Sensory Features in Autism and Related Conditions.

This editorial accompanies the JADD Special Issue on Sensory Features in Autism and Related Conditions: Developmental Approaches, Mechanisms and Targeted Interventions. The editorial is a commentary on the state of the science in sensory features in autism and related conditions and provides a synopsis of the information contained in the special issue including provocative thoughts about moving the field forward in this area.

Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions.

Health-related conditions often differ qualitatively or quantitatively between individuals of different birth-assigned sexes and gender identities, and/or with different gendered experiences, requiring tailored care. Studying the moderating and mediating effects of sex-related and gender-related factors on impairment, disability, wellbeing and health is of paramount importance especially for neurodivergent individuals, who are diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions with uneven sex/gender distributions. Researchers have become aware of the myriad influences that sex-related and gender-related variables have on the manifestations of neurodevelopmental conditions, and contemporary work has begun to investigate the mechanisms through which these effects are mediated. Here we describe topical concepts of sex and gender science, summarize current knowledge, and discuss research and clinical challenges related to autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other neurodevelopmental conditions. We consider sex and gender in the context of epidemiology, behavioural phenotypes, neurobiology, genetics, endocrinology and neighbouring disciplines. The available evidence supports the view that sex and gender are important contributors to the biological and behavioural variability in neurodevelopmental conditions. Methodological caveats such as frequent conflation of sex and gender constructs, inappropriate measurement of these constructs and under-representation of specific demographic groups (for example, female and gender minority individuals and people with intellectual disabilities) limit the translational potential of research so far. Future research and clinical implementation should integrate sex and gender into next-generation diagnostics, mechanistic investigations and support practices.

Evaluative Skill in the Creative Process: A Cross-cultural Study.

Evaluative skill is the ability to accurately judge ideas on creativity (or originality), which is a critical component of creativity. Various aspects of creativity have been examined cross-culturally, but little research has focused on evaluative skill. The first goal of this study was to examine the measurement invariance of evaluative skill assessments, which were based on two types of divergent thinking tests (Line Meanings and Uses), between American (n = 341) and Chinese (n = 345) college students. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses supported a two-factor model based on two types of evaluation tasks, and this model satisfied configural and weak invariance. However, partial strong invariance was satisfied only for the Uses evaluation task. Based on this evidence, our second goal was to explore the differences in evaluative skill between these two groups. Via latent mean comparisons, we found that American participants had better performance on evaluative skill based on the Uses evaluation task than their Chinese counterparts. Taken together, this study is one of the first to examine the cross-cultural differences in evaluative skill between American and Chinese adults. This study offered preliminary results showing some invariance in evaluative skill assessments across cultures and indicating cross-cultural differences in this ability.

Community-guided measurement-based care for autistic youth and adults receiving psychotherapy: A conceptual overview and pilot implementation study of MBC-AUT.

LAY ABSTRACT: Autistic youth and adults are more likely to experience psychiatric symptoms (e.g. depression, anxiety) and to use psychiatric services than non-autistic people, yet research on evidence-based approaches to enhance psychiatric care for autistic people is limited. Measurement-based care is an evidence-based approach to psychotherapy that improves outcomes for clients, clinicians, and organizations by routinely administering and evaluating measures to clients. Despite this, research on measurement-based care systems for autistic clients is sparse. To address this gap, we developed an autism-adapted measurement-based care (MBC-AUT) system for and with autistic people and pilot tested the system in an outpatient psychiatry clinic to investigate the preliminary feasibility, acceptability, benefits, and barriers to this system for clients and clinicians. Findings suggested that the MBC-AUT system was a feasible and acceptable system for the first 18 autistic youth, their caregivers, and autistic adults to use the system. In semi-structured interviews, clients and clinicians discussed the benefits of the MBC-AUT system to various therapeutic processes, as well as several important barriers to the use of the system. We offer potential solutions to address these barriers and to reduce client and clinician burden, and propose future directions for this line of research to increase access to more autistic people. As autistic clients continue to seek psychological services amid social landscapes of increasing complexity (e.g. COVID-19 pandemic), efforts to enhance the delivery of psychotherapy for this population are critical.

Habituation of auditory responses in young autistic and neurotypical children.

Prior studies suggest that habituation of sensory responses is reduced in autism and that diminished habituation could be related to atypical autistic sensory experiences, for example, by causing brain responses to aversive stimuli to remain strong over time instead of being suppressed. While many prior studies exploring habituation in autism have repeatedly presented identical stimuli, other studies suggest group differences can still be observed in habituation to intermittent stimuli. The present study explored habituation of electrophysiological responses to auditory complex tones of varying intensities (50-80 dB SPL), presented passively in an interleaved manner, in a well-characterized sample of 127 autistic (MDQ = 65.41, SD = 20.54) and 79 typically developing (MDQ = 106.02, SD = 11.50) children between 2 and 5 years old. Habituation was quantified as changes in the amplitudes of single-trial responses to tones of each intensity over the course of the experiment. Habituation of the auditory N2 response was substantially reduced in autistic participants as compared to typically developing controls, although diagnostic groups did not clearly differ in habituation of the P1 response. Interestingly, the P1 habituated less to loud 80 dB sounds than softer sounds, whereas the N2 habituated less to soft 50 dB sounds than louder sounds. No associations were found between electrophysiological habituation and cognitive ability or participants' caregiver-reported sound tolerance (Sensory Profile Hyperacusis Index). The results present study results extend prior research suggesting habituation of certain sensory responses is reduced in autism; however, they also suggest that habituation differences observed using this study's paradigm might not be a primary driver of autistic participants' real-world sound intolerance.

Community-guided, autism-adapted group cognitive behavioral therapy for depression in autistic youth (CBT-DAY): Preliminary feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy.

LAY ABSTRACT: Depression in youth is a significant public health problem worldwide, particularly for autistic youth who are over twice as likely to experience depression than their non-autistic peers. Although pathways to depression are complex, emotional reactivity and negative self-esteem are two risk factors for depression in autistic and non-autistic youth. Although autistic youth are more likely to experience depression than their non-autistic peers, psychotherapy options for autistic youth are very limited; community guidance in the development and testing of psychotherapy programs is a promising approach in autism. Therefore, in this study, we designed an autism-adapted CBT-DAY, in collaboration with autistic community members. Specifically, CBT-DAY combined neurodiversity-affirming and cognitive behavioral approaches to target emotional reactivity and self-esteem in youth to improve depressive symptom severity in a group setting across 12 weeks. We examined the preliminary feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of CBT-DAY in a pilot non-randomized trial. In addition, we implemented a rigorous protocol for assessing, monitoring, and addressing potential harms in this intervention. Results from 24 autistic youth (11-17 years old) suggest that CBT-DAY may be feasible to use in an outpatient clinical setting and generally acceptable to youth and their caregivers. Participation in CBT-DAY may be associated with significant improvements in youth emotional reactivity and self-esteem, as well as depressive symptom severity per self-report only. Exploratory analyses showed that participation in CBT-DAY may also be associated with significant improvements in internalizing symptoms. Findings demonstrate the potential promise of neurodiversity-affirming and cognitive behavioral approaches to treating depressive symptoms in some autistic youth.

Brief Report: The Characterization of Medical Comorbidity Prior to Autism Diagnosis in Children Before Age Two.

In autism spectrum disorder (ASD), medical conditions in infancy could be predictive markers for later ASD diagnosis. In this study, electronic medical records of 579 autistic individuals and 1897 matched controls prior to age 2 were analyzed for potential predictive conditions. Using a novel tool, the relative association of each condition in the autistic group was compared to the control group using logistic regressions across medical records. Generalized convulsive epilepsy, nystagmus, lack of normal physiological development, delayed milestones, and strabismus were more likely in those later diagnosed with ASD while perinatal jaundice was less likely to be associated. Lesser-known conditions, such as strabismus and nystagmus, may point to novel predictive co-occurring condition profiles which could improve screening practices for ASD.

A working taxonomy for describing the sensory differences of autism.

BACKGROUND: Individuals on the autism spectrum have been long described to process sensory information differently than neurotypical individuals. While much effort has been leveraged towards characterizing and investigating the neurobiology underlying the sensory differences of autism, there has been a notable lack of consistency in the terms being used to describe the nature of those differences. MAIN BODY: We argue that inconsistent and interchangeable terminology-use when describing the sensory differences of autism has become problematic beyond mere pedantry and inconvenience. We begin by highlighting popular terms that are currently being used to describe the sensory differences of autism (e.g. "sensitivity", "reactivity" and "responsivity") and discuss why poor nomenclature may hamper efforts towards understanding the aetiology of sensory differences in autism. We then provide a solution to poor terminology-use by proposing a hierarchical taxonomy for describing and referring to various sensory features. CONCLUSION: Inconsistent terminology-use when describing the sensory features of autism has stifled discussion and scientific understanding of the sensory differences of autism. The hierarchical taxonomy proposed was developed to help resolve lack of clarity when discussing the sensory differences of autism and to place future research targets at appropriate levels of analysis.

Characterizing Interoceptive Differences in Autism: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Case-control Studies.

Interoception, the body's perception of its own internal states, is thought to be altered in autism, though results of empirical studies have been inconsistent. The current study systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed the extant literature comparing interoceptive outcomes between autistic (AUT) and neurotypical (NT) individuals, determining which domains of interoception demonstrate robust between-group differences. A three-level Bayesian meta-analysis compared heartbeat counting performance, heartbeat discrimination performance, heartbeat counting confidence ratings, and self-reported interoceptive attention between AUT and NT groups (15 studies; nAUT = 467, nNT = 478). Autistic participants showed significantly reduced heartbeat counting performance [g = - 0.333, CrI95% (- 0.535, - 0.138)] and higher confidence in their heartbeat counting abilities [g = 0.430, CrI95% (0.123, 0.750)], but groups were equivalent on other meta-analyzed outcomes. Implications for future interoception research in autism are discussed.