Resolvin D2 attenuates LPS-induced macrophage exhaustion.

Early in sepsis, a hyperinflammatory response is dominant, but later, an immunosuppressive phase dominates, and the host is susceptible to opportunistic infections. Anti-inflammatory agents may accelerate the host into immunosuppression, and few agents can reverse immunosuppression without causing inflammation. Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) such as resolvin D2 (RvD2) have been reported to resolve inflammation without being immunosuppressive, but little work has been conducted to examine their effects on immunosuppression. To assess the effects of RvD2 on immunosuppression, we established a model of macrophage exhaustion using two lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatments or hits. THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages were first treated with RvD2 or vehicle for 1 h. One LPS hit increased NF-κB activity 11-fold and TNF-α release 60-fold compared to unstimulated macrophages. RvD2 decreased LPS-induced NF-κB activity and TNF-α production but increased bacterial clearance. Two LPS hits reduced macrophage bacterial clearance and decreased macrophage NF-κB activity (45%) and TNF-α release (75%) compared to one LPS hit, demonstrating exhaustion. RvD2 increased NF-κB activity, TNF-α release, and bacterial clearance following two LPS hits compared to controls. TLR2 inhibition abolished RvD2-mediated changes. In a mouse sepsis model, splenic macrophage response to exogenous LPS was reduced compared to controls and was restored by in vivo administration of RvD2, supporting the in vitro results. If RvD2 was added to monocytes before differentiation into macrophages, however, RvD2 reduced LPS responses and increased bacterial clearance following both one and two LPS hits. The results show that RvD2 attenuated macrophage suppression in vitro and in vivo and that this effect was macrophage-specific.

Alternative pathways leading to ascorbate biosynthesis in plants: lessons from the last 25 years.

l-Ascorbic acid (AsA) is an antioxidant with important roles in plant stress physiology, growth, and development. AsA also plays an essential role in human health, preventing scurvy. Humans do not synthesize AsA, which needs to be supplied via a diet rich in fresh produce. Research efforts have provided progress in the elucidation of a complex metabolic network with at least four routes leading to AsA formation in plants. In this review, three alternative pathways, namely the d-galacturonate, the l-gulose, and the myo-inositol pathways, are presented with the supporting evidence of their operation in multiple plant species. We critically discuss feeding studies using precursors and their conversion to AsA in plant organs, and research where the expression of key genes encoding enzymes involved in the alternative pathways showed >100% AsA content increase in the transgenics and in many cases accompanied by enhanced tolerance to multiple stresses. We propose that the alternative pathways are vital in AsA production in response to stressful conditions and to compensate in cases where the flux through the d-mannose/l-galactose pathway is reduced. The genes and enzymes that have been characterized so far in these alternative pathways represent important tools that are being used to develop more climate-tolerant crops.

Longitudinal plasma phosphorylated-tau217 and other related biomarkers in a non-demented Alzheimer's risk-enhanced sample.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding longitudinal change in key plasma biomarkers will aid in detecting presymptomatic Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: Serial plasma samples from 424 Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention participants were analyzed for phosphorylated-tau217 (p-tau217; ALZpath) and other AD biomarkers, to study longitudinal trajectories in relation to disease, health factors, and cognitive decline. Of the participants, 18.6% with known amyloid status were amyloid positive (A+); 97.2% were cognitively unimpaired (CU). RESULTS: In the CU, amyloid-negative (A-) subset, plasma p-tau217 levels increased modestly with age but were unaffected by body mass index and kidney function. In the whole sample, average p-tau217 change rates were higher in those who were A+ (e.g., simple slopes(se) for A+ and A- at age 60 were 0.232(0.028) and 0.038(0.013))). High baseline p-tau217 levels predicted faster preclinical cognitive decline. DISCUSSION: p-tau217 stands out among markers for its strong association with disease and cognitive decline, indicating its potential for early AD detection and monitoring progression. HIGHLIGHTS: Phosphorylated-tau217 (p-tau217) trajectories were significantly different in people who were known to be amyloid positive. Subtle age-related trajectories were seen for all the plasma markers in amyloid-negative cognitively unimpaired. Kidney function and body mass index were not associated with plasma p-tau217 trajectories. Higher plasma p-tau217 was associated with faster preclinical cognitive decline.

Electroosmotic Perfusion-Microdialysis Probe Created by Direct Laser Writing for Quantitative Assessment of Leucine Enkephalin Hydrolysis by Insulin-Regulated Aminopeptidase in Vivo.

There are many processes that actively alter the concentrations of solutes in the extracellular space. Enzymatic reactions, either by soluble enzymes or membrane-bound ectoenzymes, and uptake or clearance are two such processes. Investigations of ectoenzymatic reactions in vivo is challenging, particularly in the brain. Studies using microdialysis have revealed some qualitative information about what enzymes may be present, but microdialysis is a sampling technique so it is not designed to control conditions such as a substrate concentration outside the probe. Micropush-pull perfusion has been used to determine which nitric oxide synthase enzymes are active in discrete regions of the rat retina. Ectopeptidases are a particularly important class of ectoenzymes. As far as it is known, the extracellular activity of active peptides in the brain is controlled by ectopeptidases. To understand ectopeptidase activity, we developed a physical probe and an accompanying method. The probe has a two-channel source that supplies substrate or substrate plus inhibitor using electroosmotic perfusion (EOP). It also has a microdialysis probe to collect products and unreacted substrate. The method provides quantitative estimates of substrate-to-product conversion and the influence of inhibitors on this process. The quantitative estimates are made possible by including a d-amino acid-containing peptide analog of the substrate in the substrate-containing solution infused. Quantitative analysis of substrate, substrate analog, and products is carried out by quantitative, online capillary liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The electroosmotic perfusion-microdialysis probe and associated method were used to determine the effect of the selective inhibitor HFI-419 on insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (EC 3.4.11.3) in the rat neocortex.

On-Column Dimethylation with Capillary Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Online Determination of Neuropeptides in Rat Brain Microdialysate.

We have developed a method for online collection and quantitation of neuropeptides in rat brain microdialysates using on-column dimethylation with capillary liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (cLC-MS2). This method addresses a number of the challenges of quantifying neuropeptides with cLC-MS. It is also a completely automated and robust method for the preparation of stable isotope labeled-peptide internal standards to correct for matrix effects and thus ensure accurate quantitation. Originally developed for tissue-derived proteomics samples ( Raijmakers et al. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 2008 , 7 , 1755 - 1762 ), the efficacy of on-column dimethylation for native peptides in microdialysate has not been demonstrated until now. We have modified the process to make it more amenable to the time scale of microdialysis sampling and to reduce the accumulation of nonvolatile contaminants on the column and, thus, loss of sensitivity. By decreasing labeling time, we have a temporal resolution of 1 h from sample loading to elution and our peptide detection limits are in the low pM range for 5 µL injections of microdialysate. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of this method by quantifying basal and potassium stimulated concentrations of the neuropeptides leu-enkephalin and met-enkephalin in the rat hippocampus. To our knowledge, this is the first report of quantitation of these peptides in the hippocampus using MS.

Long-term hypoxia uncouples Ca2+ and eNOS in bradykinin-mediated pulmonary arterial relaxation.

Bradykinin-induced activation of the pulmonary endothelium triggers a rise in intracellular Ca2+ that activates nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasorelaxation. Chronic hypoxia is commonly associated with increased pulmonary vascular tone, which can cause pulmonary hypertension in responsive individuals. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that long-term high-altitude hypoxia (LTH) diminishes bradykinin-induced Ca2+ signals and inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), prostacyclin (PGI2), and large-conductance K+ (BKCa) channels in sheep, which are moderately responsive to LTH, resulting in decreased pulmonary arterial vasorelaxation. Pulmonary arteries were isolated from ewes kept near sea level (720 m) or at high altitude (3,801 m) for >100 days. Vessel force was measured with wire myography and endothelial intracellular Ca2+ with confocal microscopy. eNOS was inhibited with 100 µM NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), PGI2 production was inhibited with 10 µM indomethacin that inhibits cyclooxygenase, and BKCa channels were blocked with 1 mM tetraethylammonium. Bradykinin-induced endothelial Ca2+ signals increased following LTH, but bradykinin relaxation decreased. Furthermore, some vessels contracted in response to bradykinin after LTH. l-NAME sensitivity decreased, suggesting that eNOS dysfunction played a role in uncoupling Ca2+ signals and bradykinin relaxation. The Ca2+ ionophore A-23187 (10 µM) elicited an enhanced Ca2+ response following LTH while relaxation was unchanged although l-NAME sensitivity increased. Additionally, BKCa function decreased during bradykinin relaxation following LTH. Western analysis showed that BKCa α-subunit expression was increased by LTH while that for the ß1 subunit was unchanged. Overall, these results suggest that those even moderately responsive to LTH can have impaired endothelial function.

Developmental acceleration of bradykinin-dependent relaxation by prenatal chronic hypoxia impedes normal development after birth.

Bradykinin-induced activation of the pulmonary endothelium triggers nitric oxide production and other signals that cause vasorelaxation, including stimulation of large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BKCa) channels in myocytes that hyperpolarize the plasma membrane and decrease intracellular Ca(2+). Intrauterine chronic hypoxia (CH) may reduce vasorelaxation in the fetal-to-newborn transition and contribute to pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Thus we examined the effects of maturation and CH on the role of BKCa channels during bradykinin-induced vasorelaxation by examining endothelial Ca(2+) signals, wire myography, and Western immunoblots on pulmonary arteries isolated from near-term fetal (∼ 140 days gestation) and newborn, 10- to 20-day-old, sheep that lived in normoxia at 700 m or in CH at high altitude (3,801 m) for >100 days. CH enhanced bradykinin-induced relaxation of fetal vessels but decreased relaxation in newborns. Endothelial Ca(2+) responses decreased with maturation but increased with CH. Bradykinin-dependent relaxation was sensitive to 100 µM nitro-L-arginine methyl ester or 10 µM 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, supporting roles for endothelial nitric oxide synthase and soluble guanylate cyclase activation. Indomethacin blocked relaxation in CH vessels, suggesting upregulation of PLA2 pathways. BKCa channel inhibition with 1 mM tetraethylammonium reduced bradykinin-induced vasorelaxation in the normoxic newborn and fetal CH vessels. Maturation reduced whole cell BKCa channel α1-subunit expression but increased ß1-subunit expression. These results suggest that CH amplifies the contribution of BKCa channels to bradykinin-induced vasorelaxation in fetal sheep but stunts further development of this vasodilatory pathway in newborns. This involves complex changes in multiple components of the bradykinin-signaling axes.

Improving the Sensitivity, Resolution, and Peak Capacity of Gradient Elution in Capillary Liquid Chromatography with Large-Volume Injections by Using Temperature-Assisted On-Column Solute Focusing.

Capillary HPLC (cLC) with gradient elution is the separation method of choice for the fields of proteomics and metabolomics. This is due to the complementary nature of cLC flow rates and electrospray or nanospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The small column diameters result in good mass sensitivity. Good concentration sensitivity is also possible by injection of relatively large volumes of solution and relying on solvent-based solute focusing. However, if the injection volume is too large or solutes are poorly retained during injection, volume overload occurs which leads to altered peak shapes, decreased sensitivity, and lower peak capacity. Solutes that elute early even with the use of a solvent gradient are especially vulnerable to this problem. In this paper, we describe a simple, automated instrumental method, temperature-assisted on-column solute focusing (TASF), that is capable of focusing large volume injections of small molecules and peptides under gradient conditions. By injecting a large sample volume while cooling a short segment of the column inlet at subambient temperatures, solutes are concentrated into narrow bands at the head of the column. Rapidly raising the temperature of this segment of the column leads to separations with less peak broadening in comparison to solvent focusing alone. For large volume injections of both mixtures of small molecules and a bovine serum albumin tryptic digest, TASF improved the peak shape and resolution in chromatograms. TASF showed the most dramatic improvements with shallow gradients, which is particularly useful for biological applications. Results demonstrate the ability of TASF with gradient elution to improve the sensitivity, resolution, and peak capacity of volume overloaded samples beyond gradient compression alone. Additionally, we have developed and validated a double extrapolation method for predicting retention factors at extremes of temperature and mobile phase composition. Using this method, the effects of TASF can be predicted, allowing determination of the usefulness of this technique for a particular application.

CSF dynamics throughout the ventricular system using 4D flow MRI: associations to arterial pulsatility, ventricular volumes, and age.

BACKGROUND: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics are increasingly studied in aging and neurological disorders. Models of CSF-mediated waste clearance suggest that altered CSF dynamics could play a role in the accumulation of toxic waste in the CNS, with implications for Alzheimer's disease and other proteinopathies. Therefore, approaches that enable quantitative and volumetric assessment of CSF flow velocities could be of value. In this study we demonstrate the feasibility of 4D flow MRI for simultaneous assessment of CSF dynamics throughout the ventricular system, and evaluate associations to arterial pulsatility, ventricular volumes, and age. METHODS: In a cognitively unimpaired cohort (N = 43; age 41-83 years), cardiac-resolved 4D flow MRI CSF velocities were obtained in the lateral ventricles (LV), foramens of Monro, third and fourth ventricles (V3 and V4), the cerebral aqueduct (CA) and the spinal canal (SC), using a velocity encoding (venc) of 5 cm/s. Cerebral blood flow pulsatility was also assessed with 4D flow (venc = 80 cm/s), and CSF volumes were obtained from T1- and T2-weighted MRI. Multiple linear regression was used to assess effects of age, ventricular volumes, and arterial pulsatility on CSF velocities. RESULTS: Cardiac-driven CSF dynamics were observed in all CSF spaces, with region-averaged velocity range and root-mean-square (RMS) velocity encompassing from very low in the LVs (RMS 0.25 ± 0.08; range 0.85 ± 0.28 mm/s) to relatively high in the CA (RMS 6.29 ± 2.87; range 18.6 ± 15.2 mm/s). In the regression models, CSF velocity was significantly related to age in 5/6 regions, to CSF space volume in 2/3 regions, and to arterial pulsatility in 3/6 regions. Group-averaged waveforms indicated distinct CSF flow propagation delays throughout CSF spaces, particularly between the SC and LVs. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that 4D flow MRI enables assessment of CSF dynamics throughout the ventricular system, and captures independent effects of age, CSF space morphology, and arterial pulsatility on CSF motion.

Diagnostic Accuracy of a Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 217 Immunoassay for Alzheimer Disease Pathology.

Importance: Phosphorylated tau (p-tau) is a specific blood biomarker for Alzheimer disease (AD) pathology, with p-tau217 considered to have the most utility. However, availability of p-tau217 tests for research and clinical use has been limited. Expanding access to this highly accurate AD biomarker is crucial for wider evaluation and implementation of AD blood tests. Objective: To determine the utility of a novel and commercially available immunoassay for plasma p-tau217 to detect AD pathology and evaluate reference ranges for abnormal amyloid ß (Aß) and longitudinal change across 3 selected cohorts. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study examined data from 3 single-center observational cohorts: cross-sectional and longitudinal data from the Translational Biomarkers in Aging and Dementia (TRIAD) cohort (visits October 2017-August 2021) and Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention (WRAP) cohort (visits February 2007-November 2020) and cross-sectional data from the Sant Pau Initiative on Neurodegeneration (SPIN) cohort (baseline visits March 2009-November 2021). Participants included individuals with and without cognitive impairment grouped by amyloid and tau (AT) status using PET or CSF biomarkers. Data were analyzed from February to June 2023. Exposures: Magnetic resonance imaging, Aß positron emission tomography (PET), tau PET, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers (Aß42/40 and p-tau immunoassays), and plasma p-tau217 (ALZpath pTau217 assay). Main Outcomes and Measures: Accuracy of plasma p-tau217 in detecting abnormal amyloid and tau pathology, longitudinal p-tau217 change according to baseline pathology status. Results: The study included 786 participants (mean [SD] age, 66.3 [9.7] years; 504 females [64.1%] and 282 males [35.9%]). High accuracy was observed in identifying elevated Aß (area under the curve [AUC], 0.92-0.96; 95% CI, 0.89-0.99) and tau pathology (AUC, 0.93-0.97; 95% CI, 0.84-0.99) across all cohorts. These accuracies were comparable with CSF biomarkers in determining abnormal PET signal. The detection of abnormal Aß pathology using a 3-range reference yielded reproducible results and reduced confirmatory testing by approximately 80%. Longitudinally, plasma p-tau217 values showed an annual increase only in Aß-positive individuals, with the highest increase observed in those with tau positivity. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found that a commercially available plasma p-tau217 immunoassay accurately identified biological AD, comparable with results using CSF biomarkers, with reproducible cut-offs across cohorts. It detected longitudinal changes, including at the preclinical stage.

Misfolded alpha synuclein co-occurrence with Alzheimer's disease proteinopathy.

INTRODUCTION: Multi-etiology dementia necessitates in-vivo markers of copathologies including misfolded α -synuclein (syn). We measured misfolded syn aggregates (syn-seeds) via qualitative seed amplifcation assays (synSAA) and examined relationships with markers of Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was obtained from 420 participants in two Wisconsin AD risk cohorts (35% male; 91% cognitively unimpaired; mean (SD) age, 65.42 (7.78) years; education, 16.17 (2.23) years). synSAA results were compared to phosphorylated tau (T), beta amyloid (A), and clinical outcomes. Longitudinal cognition was modeled with mixed effects. RESULTS: Syn positivity (synSAA+) co-occurred with T (in synSAA+ vs synSAA-, 36% vs 20% T+; p=0.011) and with cognitive impairment (10% vs 7% MCI; 10% vs 0% dementia; p=0.00050). synSAA+ participants' cognitive performance declined ∼40% faster than synSAA-for Digit Symbol, but not other tests. DISCUSSION: Findings support prevalent syn copathology in a mostly-unimpaired AD risk cohort. Future work will explore relationships with disease progression.

Identification of late-stage tau accumulation using plasma phospho-tau217.

BACKGROUND: Blood-based disease staging across the Alzheimer's disease (AD) continuum holds the promise to identify individuals that profit from disease-modifying therapies. We set out to identify Braak V+ (Braak V and/or VI) tau PET-positive individuals within amyloid-ß (Aß)-positive individuals using plasma biomarkers. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, we assessed 289 individuals from the TRIAD cohort and 306 individuals from the WRAP study across the AD continuum. The participants were evaluated by amyloid-PET with [18F]AZD4694 or [11C]PiB and tau-PET with [18F]MK6240 and measured plasma levels included total tau, phospho-tau isoforms (pTau) pTau-181, pTau-217, pTau-231, and N-terminal tau (NTA-tau). We evaluated the performances of plasma biomarkers using different analytic platforms to predict Braak V+ positivity in Aß+ individuals. FINDINGS: Highest associations with Braak V+ tau positivity in Aß+ individuals were found for plasma pTau-217+Janssen (AUC [CI95%] = 0.97 [0.94, 1.0]) and ALZpath pTau-217 (AUC [CI95%] = 0.93 [0.86, 1.0]) in TRIAD. Plasma ALZpath pTau-217 separated Braak V+ tau PET-positive individuals in the WRAP longitudinal study (AUC [CI95%] = 0.97 [0.94, 1.0]). INTERPRETATION: Thus, we demonstrate that using adjusted cut-offs, plasma pTau-217 identifies individuals with later Braak stage tau accumulation which will be helpful to stratify patients for treatments and clinical studies. FUNDING: This research is supported by the Weston Brain Institute, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) [MOP-11-51-31; RFN 152985, 159815, 162303], Canadian Consortium of Neurodegeneration and Aging (CCNA; MOP-11-51-31 -team 1), the Alzheimer's Association [NIRG-12-92090, NIRP-12-259245], Brain Canada Foundation (CFI Project 34874; 33397), the Fonds de Recherche du Québec-Santé (FRQS; Chercheur Boursier, 2020-VICO-279314). P.R-N and SG are members of the CIHR-CCNA Canadian Consortium of Neurodegeneration in Aging. Colin J. Adair Charitable Foundation.

Diagnostic accuracy of the plasma ALZpath pTau217 immunoassay to identify Alzheimer's disease pathology.

Importance: Phosphorylated tau (pTau) is a specific blood biomarker for Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology, with pTau217 considered to have the most utility. However, availability of pTau217 tests for research and clinical use has been limited. Expanding access to this highly accurate AD biomarker is crucial for wider evaluation and implementation of AD blood tests. Objective: To determine the utility of a novel and commercially available Single molecule array (Simoa) for plasma pTau217 (ALZpath) to detect AD pathology. To evaluate references ranges for abnormal Aß across three selected cohorts. Design Setting Participants: Three single-centre observational cohorts were involved in the study: Translational Biomarkers in Aging and Dementia (TRIAD), Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention (WRAP), and Sant Pau Initiative on Neurodegeneration (SPIN). MRI, Aß-PET, and tau-PET data were available for TRIAD and WRAP, while CSF biomarkers were additionally measured in a subset of TRIAD and SPIN. Plasma measurements of pTau181, pTau217 (ALZpath), pTau231, Aß42/40, GFAP, and NfL, were available for all cohorts. Longitudinal blood biomarker data spanning 3 years for TRIAD and 8 years for WRAP were included. Exposures: MRI, Aß-PET, tau-PET, CSF biomarkers (Aß42/40 and pTau immunoassays) and plasma pTau217 (ALZpath Simoa). Main Outcomes and Measures: The accuracy of plasma pTau217 for detecting abnormal amyloid and tau pathology. Longitudinal pTau217 change according to baseline pathology status. Results: The study included 786 participants (mean [SD] age, 66.3 [9.7] years; 504 females [64.1%]) were included in the study. High accuracy was observed in identifying elevated Aß (AUC, 0.92-0.96; 95%CI 0.89-0.99) and tau pathology (AUC, 0.93-0.97; 95%CI 0.84-0.99) across all cohorts. These accuracies were significantly higher than other plasma biomarker combinations and comparable to CSF biomarkers. The detection of abnormal Aß pathology using binary or three-range references yielded reproducible results. Longitudinally, plasma pTau217 showed an annual increase only in Aß-positive individuals, with the highest increase observed in those with tau-positivity. Conclusions and Relevance: The ALZpath plasma pTau217 Simoa assay accurately identifies biological AD, comparable to CSF biomarkers, with reproducible cut-offs across cohorts. It detects longitudinal changes, including at the preclinical stage, and is the first widely available, accessible, and scalable blood test for pTau217 detection.

Different Concentrations of Lactobacillus acidophilus Cell Free Filtrate Have Differing Anti-Biofilm and Immunomodulatory Effects.

Probiotics such as various strains of Lactobacillaceae have been shown to have antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activity. In vitro studies have shown that Lactobacilli can decrease bacterial biofilm formation. Effects on immune cells have been unclear with most studies showing anti-inflammatory activity. The mechanism of effects has not been clearly elucidated. In these studies, we used different concentrations of live Lactobacillus acidophilus as well as cell free filtrate (CFF) derived from different concentrations of bacteria. Use of CFF is advantageous as a therapeutic because in vivo it can directly contact immune cells and its concentration is fixed. Both live cells and CFF inhibited Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation. Importantly, we show that high concentration CFF destroyed mature biofilm. This activity was not due to a lowered pH per se, as pH matched HCl did not remove mature biofilm. High concentration CFF totally inhibited P. aeruginosa growth and was bactericidal (>99.99%), but low concentration CFF was not bactericidal. To examine the immunomodulatory effects of L. acidophilus, we incubated THP-1 monocytes and derived macrophages with CFF and measured TNFα production. CFF did not significantly increase TNFα production in THP-1 monocytes. When cells were prestimulated with LPS, high concentration CFF increased TNFα production even further. In macrophages, high concentration CFF alone increased TNFα production but did not affect LPS prestimulated cells. In contrast, low concentration CFF decreased TNFα production in LPS prestimulated cells. To elucidate the possible mechanisms for these effects, we repeated the experiments using a NF-κB reporter THP-1 cell line. High concentration CFF increased NF-κB activity in monocytes and macrophages. In LPS prestimulated macrophages, only low concentration CFF reduced NF-κB activity. These results suggest that high concentration CFF alone induced NF-κB expression which could account partially for an increase in TNFα production. On the other hand, in macrophages, the lower non-bactericidal concentration of CFF reduced NF-κB expression and decreased TNFα production after LPS prestimulation. Taken together, the results provide evidence that different concentrations of L. acidophilus CFF possess varying bactericidal, anti-biofilm and immunomodulatory effects. This is important in vivo to evaluate the possible use of L. acidophilus CFF in different conditions.

Evaluation of three temperature- and mobile phase-dependent retention models for reversed-phase liquid chromatographic retention and apparent retention enthalpy.

Predicting retention and enthalpy allows for the simulation and optimization of advanced chromatographic techniques including gradient separations, temperature-assisted solute focusing, multidimensional liquid chromatography, and solvent focusing. In this paper we explore the fits of three expressions for retention as a function of mobile phase composition and temperature to retention data of 101 small molecules in reversed phase liquid chromatography. The three retention equations investigated are those by Neue and Kuss (NK) and two different equations by Pappa-Louisi et al., one based on a partition model (PL-P) and one based on an adsorption model (PL-A). More than 25 000 retention factors were determined for 101 small molecules under various mobile phase and temperature conditions. The pure experimental uncertainty is very small, approximately 0.22% uncertainty in retention factors measured on the same day (2.1% when performed on different days). Each of the three equations for ln(k) was fit to the experimental data based on a least-squares approach and the results were analyzed using lack-of-fit residuals. The PL-A model, while complex, gives the best overall fits. In addition to examining the equations' adequacy for retention, we also examined their use for apparent retention enthalpy. This enthalpy can be predicted by taking the derivative of these expressions with respect to the inverse of absolute temperature. The numerical values of the fitted parameters based on retention data can then be used to predict retention enthalpy. These enthalpy predictions were compared to those obtained from a modified van 't Hoff equation that included a quadratic term in inverse temperature. Based on analysis of 1 211 van 't Hoff plots (solute-mobile phase-day combinations), ninety-eight percent showed a significantly better fit when using the modified van 't Hoff expression, justifying its use to provide apparent enthalpies as a function of mobile phase composition and temperature. The foregoing apparent enthalpies were compared to the apparent enthalpies predicted by the three models. The PL-A model, which contains a temperature dependent enthalpy, provided the best enthalpy prediction. However, there is virtually no correlation between the overall lack of fit to experimental ln(k) for each model and the corresponding lack of fit of the linear (in 1/T) van 't Hoff expression. Thus, the temperature-dependent enthalpy is apparently not the cause of a model's ability to fit ln(k) as a function of mobile phase composition and temperature. The value in these expressions is their ability to predict chromatograms, allowing for optimization of an advanced chromatographic technique. The two simpler models NK and PL-P, which do not contain a temperature dependent enthalpy, have their merits in modelling retention (NK being the better of the two) and enthalpy (PL-P being the better of the two) if a simpler expression is required for a given application.

Methods of Measuring Enzyme Activity Ex Vivo and In Vivo.

Enzymes catalyze a variety of biochemical reactions in the body and, in conjunction with transporters and receptors, control virtually all physiological processes. There is great value in measuring enzyme activity ex vivo and in vivo. Spatial and temporal differences or changes in enzyme activity can be related to a variety of natural and pathological processes. Several analytical approaches have been developed to meet this need. They can be classified broadly as methods either based on artificial substrates, with the goal of creating images of diseased tissue, or based on natural substrates, with the goal of understanding natural processes. This review covers a selection of these methods, including optical, magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry, and physical sampling approaches, with a focus on creative chemistry and method development that make ex vivo and in vivo measurements of enzyme activity possible.

Development of an equilibrium headspace gas chromatographic method for the measurement of noncovalent association and partitioning of n-alkylbenzenes at infinite dilution in fulvic acid pseudophase.

Fulvic acid (FA), the most important water soluble fraction of humic substances in nature, is known to form aggregate pseudophase and complexes with organic and inorganic species. Here, we report a novel equilibrium headspace gas chromatography (eHSGC) and a two-step reaction model to measure n-alkylbenzene-FA association constant (K11) and n-alkylbenzene-pseudophase FAn association constant (Kn1) without solute concentration and response factor. The K11 and Kn1 values were 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than those for sodium dodecylsulfate. Changes in peak area were used to calculate the critical FA-aggregation concentration (cfc), mole fraction based partition coefficients (Kx), activity coefficients of solute inside the aggregate pseudophase (γm(∞)), and transfer free energies of alkyl CH2 at infinite dilution. The cfc was found to be 10±0.5µM. The Kx values are of the order of 10(7) in the FA-aggregate pseudophase. The data shows that benzene has the lowest (0.0002) and n-butylbenzene has the highest (0.01) γm(∞) values, which are seven orders of magnitude smaller than γw(∞) in water. The transfer free energy of association of a CH2 group, -155cal/mol, compared to that of benzene, -9722cal/mol, indicates that the FA-aggregate pseudophase is more polarizable benzene-like and less n-alkane aliphatic-like.