Case Report: Unilateral Hemispheric Hemorrhage with Bilateral Ptosis and Upgaze Palsy.

SIGNIFICANCE: Determining the anatomic location of insult in cases of concurrent bilateral upgaze palsy with bilateral ptosis can be challenging because of the various overlapping pathways and shared functions. It is more commonly related to bilateral oculomotor nerve palsies and myasthenia gravis. However, the possibility of unilateral cerebrovascular events may be overlooked because of the lack of laterality of disease manifestations. PURPOSE: This report documents the uncommon presentation of bilateral ptosis and upgaze palsy in unilateral hemispheric hemorrhage with the corresponding clinical and anatomical review. CASE REPORT: A 46-year-old gentleman presented to the emergency department with left-sided hemiplegia, concurrent bilateral ptosis, and upgaze palsy. He was found to have acute hemorrhagic stroke secondary to significantly elevated blood pressure. Computed tomography of the brain revealed acute extensive intraparenchymal hemorrhage involving the right basal ganglia, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe. There was an extension of hemorrhage into the third ventricle and subarachnoid extension to the Sylvian fissure with obstructive hydrocephalus. An emergency right craniotomy was performed to evacuate the blood clot, and the hydrocephalus subsequently resolved. Post-operatively, bilateral ptosis and upgaze palsy improved and then resolved. CONCLUSIONS: Acute bilateral ptosis and upgaze palsy suggest the possibility of unilateral hemispheric hemorrhage, even though there is no direct involvement of the brainstem and its nuclei.

Vision, vision-specific functioning and mobility, and their relationship with clinically assessed cognitive impairment.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between self-reported visual disability and cognitive impairment in older individuals is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship of vision-specific functioning (VSF), vision-specific mobility (VSM) and visual acuity (VA) with clinically assessed cognitive impairment in the Epidemiology of Dementia in Singapore study. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Population-based. SUBJECTS: Eight hundred and seventy-four adults aged ≥60 years at higher risk of possible cognitive impairment by the Abbreviated Mental Test and progressive forgetfulness question. METHODS: VSF and VSM were measured using Rasch-transformed continuous scores of two Impact of Vision Impairment questionnaire domains. Cognitive impairment was objectively determined using detailed neuropsychological testing and defined as no cognitive impairment (NCI), mild cognitive impairment-no dementia (CIND), moderate CIND only and moderate CIND or dementia. Associations were assessed using multinomial logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of the 874 participants (49.0% males, mean age (SD) 65.5 (7.0) years), 277, 281 and 316 had NCI, mild CIND and moderate CIND or dementia, respectively. Compared to NCI, the odds of moderate CIND, and moderate CIND or dementia increased for every SD worsening in VSF (OR: 1.44, 95% CI 1.14-1.82, and OR: 1.52, 95%CI 1.19-1.94, respectively) and VSM (OR: 1.42, 95%CI 1.11-1.81, and OR: 1.50, 95%CI 1.15-1.95). Similarly, the odds of mild CIND (OR: 1.62, 95%CI 1.19-2.22), moderate CIND (OR: 1.93, 95%CI 1.45-2.58), and moderate CIND or dementia (OR: 2.25, 95%CI 1.62-3.11) increased significantly with every SD worsening of VA. CONCLUSIONS: Our results emphasise the importance of interventions to prevent vision loss and improve quality of life to reduce likelihood of age-related cognitive decline.

Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness in a Multiethnic Normal Asian Population: The Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

PURPOSE: To describe variations in retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness based on spectral-domain (SD) OCT in a multiethnic Asian population. DESIGN: Population-based, cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: Ethnic Chinese, Malay, and Indian adults older than 48 years without glaucoma who were recruited from the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study. METHODS: All participants underwent standardized systemic and ocular examinations. Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness was measured using SD OCT. Participants with poor-quality scans were excluded. Linear regression models were used to investigate the associations of ocular and systemic factors with average RNFL thickness. Generalized estimating equation models were used to account for correlation between both eyes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Average RNFL thickness. RESULTS: Four thousand four hundred seventy-five participants (8178 eyes) consisting of 1371 Chinese, 1303 Malay, and 1801 Indian adults contributed to this analysis. Average RNFL thickness measured was 95.7±9.6 µm in Chinese participants, 94.9±10.6 µm in Malay participants, and 87.3±10.6 µm in Indian participants (P < 0.001). Multivariate analysis adjusted for age, gender, and ethnicity revealed a reduction in RNFL thickness with increased intraocular pressure and axial length (P < 0.001 for both), as well as a diagnosis of diabetes (P = 0.04); greater RNFL thickness was associated with increased disc area (P < 0.001), signal strength (P < 0.001), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P = 0.02). When these significant variables were taken into account, the average RNFL thickness of Indian participants was significantly thinner compared with Chinese participants (7.45 µm thinner on average [95% confidence interval, 6.75-8.15 µm; P < 0.001]), whereas there was no significant difference in average RNFL thickness between Malay and Chinese participants (P = 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: Average and regional RNFL thicknesses were significantly thinner in Indian eyes compared with Chinese and Malay eyes. Results of the study highlight the need to acquire more refined normative data for the comparison of individual patients with others of similar ethnic background while accounting for ocular factors that could influence RNFL thickness. This in turn may improve the sensitivity and specificity of glaucoma detection.

Prevalence, determinants and association of unawareness of diabetes, hypertension and hypercholesterolemia with poor disease control in a multi-ethnic Asian population without cardiovascular disease.

BACKGROUND: To explore the prevalence and determinants of unawareness of diabetes, hypertension and hypercholesterolemia and its association with poor disease control in a multi-ethnic Asian population without cardiovascular disease (CVD). METHODS: We included 6904 Chinese, Malay and Indian individuals (mean age [SD] 58.2 [10.2] years; 52.6% female) with diabetes, hypertension and/or hypercholesterolemia from the cross-sectional population-based Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases study (2004-2011). Diabetes was defined as random blood glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L or HbA1c > 6.5% or self-reported use of diabetes medication; hypertension as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg or self-reported use of anti-hypertensive treatment; and hypercholesterolemia as total cholesterol ≥ 6.2 mmol/L or self-reported use of lipid-lowering medications. Unawareness was based on participants' answers to the questions: "Did your medical practitioner ever tell you that you have diabetes/hypertension/high cholesterol?" The determinants of unawareness, and its association with poor disease control, were assessed using multivariable binary logistic regression models adjusted for known potential confounders. RESULTS: Of the 2380 (34.5%), 5386 (78.0%) and 3607 (52.2%) with diabetes, hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, respectively, unawareness rates were 30.7%, 43.1% and 40.9%, respectively. Having a higher BMI, particularly if obese, and Malay ethnicity were associated with greater unawareness of diabetes; Malay and Indian ethnicities and current smoking with greater unawareness of hypertension; and education ≤6 years, current smoking, and blue collar jobs or unemployment with greater unawareness of hypercholesterolemia (all P < 0.05). Lack of awareness of each condition was independently associated with poorer disease control in the case of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, while the converse was true for diabetes (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Unawareness of diabetes, hypertension, or hypercholesterolemia is high in Singapore, with risk factors varying across all three diseases, although Malay ethnicity is a consistent one. Unawareness was also associated with poor management for hypertension and hypercholesterolemia. Public health education and screening programs should target at-risk individuals, especially Malays, to reduce the likelihood of incident CVD.

Six-Year Incidence of and Risk Factors for Cataract Surgery in a Multi-ethnic Asian Population: The Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

PURPOSE: To report the 6-year incidence of cataract surgery in an Asian population-based cohort of Malay, Indian, and Chinese persons living in Singapore and factors associated with undergoing cataract surgery over the follow-up period. DESIGN: Population-based prospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: From 2004 through 2011, 10 033 participants (3280 Malays, 3400 Indians, and 3353 Chinese) 40 years of age or older participated in the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study. Six years later, 6762 participants (78.7% of those eligible, including 1901 Malays [72.1% of eligible], 2200 Indians [75.5% of eligible], and 2661 Chinese [87.7% of eligible]) were re-examined. METHODS: Detailed eye examinations including slit-lamp biomicroscopy were conducted at both visits. Logistic regression models were used to assess factors associated with cataract surgery after adjusting for age, gender, socioeconomic status, and other risk factors. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Incident cataract surgery. RESULTS: The age-adjusted 6-year incidence of cataract surgery was 11.0% (9.5%, 12.6%, and 11.1% for Malays, Indians, and Chinese, respectively) and was strongly age related (P < 0.001 for trend). After adjustment, baseline factors associated with incident cataract surgery included older age (odds ratio [OR], 1.13 per 1-year increase; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.11-1.14), diabetes (OR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.54-2.33), myopia (OR, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.44-2.20), and baseline presence of any cataract, including nuclear cataract (OR, 3.78; 95% CI, 2.91-4.89), cortical cataract (OR, 3.01; 95% CI, 2.45-3.71), and posterior subcapsular cataract (OR, 5.00; 95% CI, 3.91-6.41). The population attributable risks of cataract surgery related to diabetes and myopia were 17.6% and 19.1%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: One in 10 Malay, Indian, and Chinese Singaporeans 40 years of age or older underwent cataract surgery in at least 1 eye over 6 years. In Asian populations, diabetes and myopia, 2 well-known factors associated with cataract prevalence, are significant and potentially modifiable factors associated with the need for cataract surgery.

Depression and Nystagmus as the Rare Masquerading Presentations of Pineal Germinoma.

Convergence-retraction nystagmus alongside behavioral changes can be rare manifestations of a potentially life-threatening midbrain lesion. After experiencing headaches for three months, a 13-year-old boy was diagnosed with depression due to exhibiting reduced speech, hypersomnia, and psychomotor slowing for three weeks. It was preceded by headache for three months. Examination revealed visual acuity of 6/6 bilaterally, convergence-retraction nystagmus worst on upgaze, limited bilateral ocular motility in upgaze, and light-near dissociation on pupil examination, all of which point towards Parinaud's syndrome. However, there was no lid retraction to suggest Collier's sign. Fundus examination revealed papilledema. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a large pineal mass extending to both thalami, dilated ventricles due to obstructive hydrocephalus, and cerebral edema. An urgent external ventricular drain was inserted, and biopsy revealed pineal gland germinoma. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy resulted in adequate tumor shrinkage. This case report highlights that subacute behavioral changes may mask a potentially life-threatening intracranial tumor, especially when associated with abnormal eye movement.

Variability in Grading Diabetic Retinopathy Using Retinal Photography and Its Comparison with an Automated Deep Learning Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Software.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) screening using colour retinal photographs is cost-effective and time-efficient. In real-world clinical settings, DR severity is frequently graded by individuals of different expertise levels. We aim to determine the agreement in DR severity grading between human graders of varying expertise and an automated deep learning DR screening software (ADLS). METHODS: Using the International Clinical DR Disease Severity Scale, two hundred macula-centred fundus photographs were graded by retinal specialists, ophthalmology residents, family medicine physicians, medical students, and the ADLS. Based on referral urgency, referral grading was divided into no referral, non-urgent referral, and urgent referral to an ophthalmologist. Inter-observer and intra-group variations were analysed using Gwet's agreement coefficient, and the performance of ADLS was evaluated using sensitivity and specificity. RESULTS: The agreement coefficient for inter-observer and intra-group variability ranged from fair to very good, and moderate to good, respectively. The ADLS showed a high area under curve of 0.879, 0.714, and 0.836 for non-referable DR, non-urgent referable DR, and urgent referable DR, respectively, with varying sensitivity and specificity values. CONCLUSION: Inter-observer and intra-group agreements among human graders vary widely, but ADLS is a reliable and reasonably sensitive tool for mass screening to detect referable DR and urgent referable DR.

Normative patterns and factors associated with presbyopia progression in a multiethnic Asian population: the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

BACKGROUND/AIM: To investigate normative patterns and factors associated with presbyopia progression in a multiethnic Asian population. METHODS: Malay, Indian and Chinese participants aged 40-80 years who had baseline and 6-year follow-up examinations with subjective refraction data were recruited from the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study. Presbyopia progression was defined as an increase in near addition power of ≥+0.50 dioptre (D) from baseline to follow-up visit. Modified Poisson regression analyses were used to determine baseline factors associated with presbyopia progression. RESULTS: From the eligible 3974 eyes, 2608 eyes were included for final analysis after excluding eyes with a history of cataract surgery (929 eyes) and best-corrected distance visual acuity worse than 20/40 (342 eyes). Overall the mean near addition power change over 6 years was +0.25 D; Malays showed greater change (+0.37 D) compared with Indians (+0.23 D) and Chinese (+0.16 D). After adjusting for baseline age, gender, body mass index, hypertension, cataract, refractive error and daily hours of reading and writing, Malays were more likely to have presbyopia progression compared with Chinese (RR (relative risk)=1.67; 95% CI 1.43 to 1.95; p<0.001) and Indians (RR=1.45; 95% CI 1.25 to 1.68; p<0.001). Individuals aged 60-69 years (RR=0.77; p=0.006) and ≥70 years (RR=0.51; p<0.001) were less likely to progress in presbyopia compared with those aged 40-49. CONCLUSION: In this Asian population, the near addition power change over 6 years was lower than the current near addition prescription guidelines (+0.25 D vs +0.60 D). Our findings may help update near addition prescription guidelines that can be more tailored to Asians.

Association of Cataract Surgery With Risk of Diabetic Retinopathy Among Asian Participants in the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

Importance: Cataracts and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are the leading causes of acquired blindness worldwide. Although extraction is the standard treatment option for cataracts, it is also reported to increase the risk of developing DR among individuals with diabetes. Nevertheless, the association between cataract surgery and risk of DR is still not well understood, and there have been no prior population-based reports in this area. Objective: To assess the risk of developing DR after cataract surgery among individuals with type 2 diabetes. Design, Setting, and Participants: A population-based prospective cohort study was conducted among participants recruited from the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study. The baseline visit was conducted between June 1, 2004, and March 31, 2009, and the 6-year follow-up visit was conducted between June 1, 2011, and July 31, 2016. Statistical analysis was performed from October 1 to 31, 2019. Exposures: Cataract surgery performed before a follow-up visit, determined based on slitlamp evaluation of lens status at baseline and follow-up visits. Main Outcomes and Measures: Eyes with incidence of DR were defined as those with the presence of any DR (level ≥15 based on the modified Airlie House classification system, graded from retinal photographs) at 6-year follow-up with no DR at baseline. The association between cataract surgery and incidence of DR was evaluated using a multivariable Poisson regression model with a generalized estimating equation to account for correlation between both eyes. Results: A total of 1734 eyes from 972 participants with diabetes (392 Malay individuals and 580 Indian individuals; 495 men; mean [SD] age, 58.7 [9.1] years) were included in the analysis. A total of 163 study eyes had already undergone cataract surgery at baseline, and a total of 187 eyes (originally phakic at baseline) underwent cataract surgery any time during the follow-up period. Of these 350 eyes, 77 (22.0%) developed DR. Among the 1384 eyes that never underwent cataract surgery, 195 (14.1%) developed DR. After adjustments for age, sex, race/ethnicity, baseline hemoglobin A1c level, duration of diabetes, random blood glucose level, antidiabetic medication use, hypertension, body mass index, and smoking status, multivariable regression analysis showed that any prior cataract surgery was associated with incidence of DR (relative risk, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.26-2.30; P = .001). Subgroup analyses by race/ethnicity showed similar associations in both Malay individuals (relative risk, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.13-2.69; P = .02) and Indian individuals (relative risk, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.33-2.80; P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this population-based cohort study suggest that prior cataract surgery was associated with a higher risk of developing DR among individuals with diabetes. Further validation is warranted to confirm this association.

A Prospective 10-Year Observational Study of Reduction of Radiation Therapy Clinical Target Volume and Dose in Early-Stage Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma.

PURPOSE: Current guideline recommends a uniform method of delineation of subclinical disease within the primary clinical target volume (CTVp) for all stages of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). We performed a prospective observational study to investigate the outcomes with a reduced CTVp and radiation dose for early-stage NPC. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Patients with newly diagnosed, biopsy-proven World Health Organization type II-III and American Joint Committee on Cancer/Union for International Cancer Control sixth edition stage T1-2N0-1 disease were enrolled. All patients were treated with intensity modulated radiation therapy alone. We categorized CTVp into CTVp1 (high risk) and CTVp2 (low risk). CTVp1 comprised of gross tumor (on magnetic resonance imaging or contrast-enhanced computed tomography) plus a 5-mm margin (3-mm posteriorly) and was prescribed to 60 Gy in 30 fractions (fr). CTVp2 was generated from CTVp1 plus a 5-mm margin (3 mm posteriorly), excluding the maxillary and cavernous sinuses, and was prescribed to 54 Gy in 30 fr. The prescribed doses to the primary and nodal gross tumor volume (GTVp and GTVn) were 68 Gy in 30 fr and 60 to 66 Gy in 30 fr, respectively. Primary endpoint was local recurrence-free survival. This study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT03839602. RESULTS: From May 2001 to August 2006, 103 patients were recruited and completed IMRT. With a median follow-up of 15.2 years (range, 2.1-18.1 years), only 1 patient had local failure. Ten-year local recurrence-free survival, regional recurrence-free survival, distant metastasis-free survival, and overall survival were 90.3%, 88.3%, 90.3%, and 91.2%, respectively. Among late IMRT-related adverse events, we recorded 2 patients with G1 cranial nerve injury, 3 patients with G3 hearing loss, and 3 patients with G3 subcutaneous fibrosis. No patients had temporal lobe necrosis, brain stem injury, or trismus. CONCLUSIONS: Decreased CTV margins and radiation doses can achieve long-term tumor control with mild late toxicities for patients with early-stage NPC.

Racial differences and determinants of macular thickness profiles in multiethnic Asian population: the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

AIM: To evaluate racial differences, and ocular and systemic determinants of macular thickness (MT), measured by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in a normal multiethnic Asian population. METHOD: MT was measured from a 6×6 mm2 central macular area using the Cirrus high-definition OCT (HD-OCT) (Carl Zeiss Meditec, Dublin, CA). The associations between ocular and systemic factors with MT were evaluated using linear regression analyses with generalised estimating equation models to account for intereye correlation. RESULTS: 7447 healthy eyes (2577 Chinese, 2072 Malays and 2798 Indians) of 4510 subjects were included. Multivariable analysis showed that older age (per decade, ß=-4.39), female gender (ß=-5.74), diabetes (ß=-1.10), chronic kidney disease (CKD) (ß=-3.21), longer axial length (per mm, ß=-2.34), flatter corneal curvature (per mm, ß=-1.79) and presence of cataract (ß=-0.94) were associated with thinner overall average MT (OMT) (all p≤0.026); higher total cholesterol (ß=0.44; p=0.010) was associated with thicker OMT. All these factors were also associated with thinner central subfield MT (CSMT) (all p≤0.001), except for cataract, total cholesterol and CKD. Meanwhile, longer axial length (ß=2.51; p<0.001) was associated with thicker CSMT. OMT (mean±SD) was thickest in Chinese (279.9±12.5 µm), followed by Malays (276.5±13.7 µm) and Indians (272.4±13.1 µm), with p≤0.003 for all interethnic comparisons. Similar trend was observed for CSMT. CONCLUSION: There are interethnic differences in MT profile among Asians, particularly between Chinese and Indians. Ocular and systemic factors affect MT measurements as well. This Asian-specific information may be incorporated into existing clinical interpretation of macular OCT scans to aid in improving the diagnostic and monitoring accuracy of macular diseases among Asians.

Normative pattern and determinants of outer retinal thickness in an Asian population: the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To evaluate the distribution and determinants of outer retinal thickness in eyes without retinal diseases, using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). METHODS: Participants were recruited from the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study, a population-based study among Chinese, Malays and Indians in Singapore. A total of 5333 participants underwent SD-OCT imaging in which a 6×6 mm2 measurement area centred at the fovea. Outer retinal thickness was defined as the distance from the outer plexiform layer to the retinal pigment epithelium layer boundary. RESULTS: 7444 eyes from 4454 participants were included in final analysis. Of them, mean age was 58.4 years (SD 8.3), and 2294 (51.5%) were women. Women (121.0±8.1 µm) had thinner average outer retinal thickness than men (125.6±8.2 µm) (p<0.001). Malays (121.4±8.7 µm) had thinner average outer retinal thickness than Indians (124.3±8.6 µm) and Chinese (123.7±7.9 µm) (both p<0.001). In multivariable models, thinner average outer retinal thickness was associated with older age (per decade, ß=-1.02, p<0.001), hypertension (ß=-0.59, p=0.029), diabetes (ß=-0.73, p=0.013), chronic kidney disease (ß=-1.25, p=0.017), longer axial length (per mm, ß=-0.76, p<0.001), flatter corneal curvature (per mm, ß=-2.00, p<0.001) and higher signal strength (ß=-1.46, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: In this large sample of Asian population, we provided normative SD-OCT data on outer retinal thickness in eyes without retinal diseases. Women had thinner outer retina than men. For the first time, these findings provide fundamental knowledge on normative profile of outer retinal thickness in Asians.

Falls and Recurrent Falls among Adults in A Multi-ethnic Asian Population: The Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

We evaluated the rate and risk factors associated with falls and recurrent falls in a multi-ethnic Asian population. 10,009 participants aged ≥40 years (mean[SD] age = 58.9[10.4] years) underwent clinical examinations and completed interviewer-administered questionnaires. Participants who self-reported at least one fall or ≥2 falls in past 12 months were defined as fallers and recurrent fallers, respectively. Age-standardized rates for falls and recurrent falls were 13.8% (95%CI, 13.1-14.6%) and 4.6% (95%CI, 4.2-5.1%), respectively. Multivariable analyses showed older age (OR = 1.20; 95%CI, 1.11-1.30), female gender (OR = 1.79; 95%CI, 1.54-2.07), diabetes (OR = 1.22; 95%CI, 1.07-1.40), cardiovascular disease (CVD, OR = 1.37; 95%CI, 1.14-1.65), ≥3 systemic comorbidities (OR = 1.35; 95%CI, 1.09-1.67), lower European Quality of Life-5 Dimensions (EQ-5D) score (OR = 1.36; 95%CI, 1.29-1.44), alcohol consumption (OR = 1.41, 95%CI, 1.11-1.78) and presenting visual impairment (VI, OR = 1.23; 95%CI, 1.02-1.47) were associated with falls. For recurrent falls, female gender (OR = 2.27; 95%CI, 1.75-2.94), diabetes (OR = 1.28; 95%CI, 1.03-1.61), CVD (OR = 2.00; 95%CI, 1.53-2.62), ≥3 systemic comorbidities (OR = 1.69; 95%CI, 1.19-2.39), lower EQ-5D score (OR = 1.47; 95%CI, 1.35-1.59), living in 1-2 room public flat (OR = 1.57; 95%CI, 1.05-2.33), monthly income <2000 Singapore Dollar (OR = 1.62; 95%CI, 1.13-2.31), alcohol consumption (OR = 1.81, 95%CI, 1.23-2.66) and presenting VI (OR = 1.34; 95%CI, 1.01-1.79) were significant risk factors. These findings will be useful for the formulation of fall prevention programs.

Corneal blindness and current major treatment concern-graft scarcity.

According to World Health Organization, the global prevalence of blindness in 2010 was 39 million people, among which 4% were due to corneal opacities. Often, the sole resort for visual restoration of patients with damaged corneas is corneal transplantation. However, despite rapid developments of surgical techniques, instrumentations and immunosuppressive agents, corneal blindness remains a prevalent global health issue. This is largely due to the scarcity of good quality corneal grafts. In this review, the causes of corneal blindness, its major treatment options, and the major contributory factors of corneal graft scarcity with potential solutions are discussed.

Central serous chorioretinopathy: what we have learnt so far.

Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is a common retinal cause of visual loss. The mainstays of management are observation, photodynamic therapy (PDT) and laser procedures. Over the past decade, there has been rapid development in the existing and novel imaging techniques, functional testing and management of CSCR. However, there is no convincing treatment designed for CSCR yet. In recent years, the advances in PDT, with various adjustments in fluence and verteporfin dosage, and the comparisons between different types of PDT for acute and chronic CSCR in recent studies have provided greater insights into the role of PDT in treating CSCR. Novel laser procedures, such as the diode micropulse laser, have shown comparable efficacy to conventional lasers without laser-induced damage. Antivascular endothelial growth factor, which was originally developed for treating cancers, has emerged to be a potentially effective treatment for CSCR. The potential role of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in treating CSCR has provided greater understanding of the pathogenesis. Based on the relevant studies, mainly from the past decade, we discuss updates to the management of CSCR according to the risk factor modifications, pharmacological interventions, PDT and laser procedures and concluded that PDT is the current best option for CSCR.

Genetic Associations of Interleukin-related Genes with Graves' Ophthalmopathy: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO) is the commonest extra-thyroidal manifestation of Graves' disease (GD). Associations between interleukin-related (IL) gene polymorphisms and GO have been reported in different populations. We aim to confirm such associations by conducting a meta-analysis. Totally 382 publications were retrieved in MEDLINE and EMBASE up to 25/2/2015. After removing the duplicates and assessing the studies, we retrieved 16 studies that met the selection criteria for meta-analysis, involving 12 polymorphisms in 8 IL-related genes, and 1650 GO cases and 2909 GD controls. The summary odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. We found one polymorphism in IL1A (rs1800587, c.-889C>T) showing a suggestive association with GO in the meta-analysis (allelic model [T vs. C]: OR = 1.62, 95% CI: 1.00-2.62, P = 0.050, I(2) = 53.7%; recessive model [TT vs. TC + CC]: OR = 2.39, 95% CI: 1.07-5.37, P = 0.039, I(2) = 23.6%; heterozygous model [TC vs. CC]: OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.04-2.22, P = 0.034, I(2) = 37.0%). No association with GO was detected for the other 7 genes (IL1B, IL1RA, IL4, IL6, IL12B, IL13 and IL23R). Our results thus indicate that IL1A is likely to be a genetic biomarker for GO. Further studies with larger sample sizes are warranted to confirm the associations of IL1A and other IL-related genes with GO.