[Report of incidence and mortality of gallbladder cancer in China, 2014].

Objective: The incidence and mortality of gallbladder cancer from Chinese cancer registries in 2014 were analyzed to describe the prevalence of gallbladder cancer in China. Methods: Incidence and mortality data of gallbladder cancer in 2014 derived from registration data in 2017, collected by the National Central Cancer Registry (NCCR). Qualified data from 339 cancer registries were calculated after evaluating. According to the national population data of 2014, the gallbladder cancer incidence and mortality of China in 2014 were stratified by the area, gender and age.The age composition of standard population of Chinese census in 2000 and Segi's population were used for age-standardizes incidence and mortality in China and worldwide. Results: 339 cancer registries cover a total of 288 243 347 population including 146 203 891 males and 142 039 456 females (144 061 915 in urban and 144 181 432 in rural areas). The mortality to incidence ratio of gallbladder cancer was 0.74. The morphologically verified cases (MV%) and death certificate-only cases (DCO%) were 48.38% and 2.66%, respectively. Unclear diagnosis cases (UB%) was 0.48%. The crude incidence of gallbladder cancer in China in 2014 was 3.82/100 000, which accounted for 1.37% of new cancer cases (4.48/100 000 in urban areas and 3.01/100 000 in rural areas, 3.59/100 000 for male and 4.05/100 000 for female). Age-standardized incidence rates by Chinese standard population (ASR China) and world standard population (ASR world) were 2.38/100 000 and 2.37/100 000, respectively, and the cumulative incidence rate (0-74 age years old) was 0.27%.Besides, the crude mortality of gallbladder cancer was 2.86/100 000 (3.47/100 000 in urban areas and 2.12/100 000 in rural areas, 2.59/100 000 for male and 3.14/100 000 for female). Age-standardized mortality rates by ASR China and ASR world were 1.72/100 000 and 1.71/100 000, with a cumulative mortality rate (0-74 age years old) of 0.19%. Conclusion: The incidence and mortality of gallbladder cancer were significantly different between the city and country, while not obviously different between the female and male.

Estrogen inhibits bone resorption by directly inducing apoptosis of the bone-resorbing osteoclasts.

Estrogen deficiency causes bone loss, which can be prevented by estrogen replacement therapy. Using a recently developed technique for isolation of highly purified mammalian osteoclasts, we showed that 17 beta-estradiol (E2) was able to directly inhibit osteoclastic bone resorption. At concentrations effective for inhibiting bone resorption, E2 also directly induced osteoclast apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. ICI164,384 and tamoxifen, as pure and partial antagonists, respectively, completely or partially blocked the effect of E2 on both inhibition of osteoclastic bone resorption and induction of osteoclast apoptosis. These data suggest that the protective effects of estrogen against postmenopausal osteoporosis are mediated in part by the direct induction of apoptosis of the bone-resorbing osteoclasts by an estrogen receptor- mediated mechanism.

Identification of an estrogen response element activated by metabolites of 17beta-estradiol and raloxifene.

17beta-Estradiol modulates gene transcription through the estrogen receptor and the estrogen response element in DNA. The human transforming growth factor-beta3 gene was shown to be activated by the estrogen receptor in the presence of estrogen metabolites or estrogen antagonists. Activation was mediated by a polypurine sequence, termed the raloxifene response element, and did not require the DNA binding domain of the estrogen receptor. Interaction of the estrogen receptor with the raloxifene response element appears to require a cellular adapter protein. The observation that individual estrogens modulate multiple DNA response elements may explain the tissue-selective estrogen agonist or antagonist activity of compounds such as raloxifene.

Constitutive activation of transcription and binding of coactivator by estrogen-related receptors 1 and 2.

In this report, we demonstrate that, in contrast to most previously characterized nuclear receptors, hERR1 and hERR2 (human estrogen receptor-related protein 1 and -2) are constitutive activators of the classic estrogen response element (ERE) as well as the palindromic thyroid hormone response element (TRE(pal)) but not the glucocorticoid response element (GRE). This intrinsically activated state of hERR1 and hERR2 resides in the ligand-binding domains of the two genes and is transferable to a heterologous receptor. In addition, we show that members of the p160 family of nuclear receptor coactivators, ACTR (activator of thyroid and retinoic acid receptors), GRIP1 (glucocorticoid receptor interacting protein 1), and SRC-1 (steroid receptor coactivator 1), potentiate the transcriptional activity by hERR1 and hERR2 in mammalian cells, and that both orphan receptors bind the coactivators in a ligand-independent manner. Together, these results suggest that hERR1 and hERR2 activate gene transcription through a mechanism different from most of the previously characterized steroid hormone receptors.

Estrogen and raloxifene stimulate transforming growth factor-beta 3 gene expression in rat bone: a potential mechanism for estrogen- or raloxifene-mediated bone maintenance.

Estrogen or raloxifene (LY156758) prevent estrogen deficiency-induced bone loss in animals and humans. We demonstrated in the rat that a 22% reduction in bone mineral density generated by ovariectomy was associated with a 2-fold reduction of transforming growth factor-beta 3 (TGF beta 3) messenger RNA expression in the femur. Administration of 17 beta-estradiol or raloxifene to ovariectomized rats restored both bone mineral density and TGF beta 3 messenger RNA expression in the femur to levels measured in intact animals. In transient transfection assays, the promoter sequence from -38 to + 110 of the human TGF beta 3 gene, which contains no palindromic estrogen response element, was sufficient to mediate 17 beta-estradiol or raloxifene induced-reporter gene expression in presence of the estrogen receptor. Raloxifene activated TGF beta 3 promoter as a full agonist at nanomolar concentrations. In the same cellular system, raloxifene inhibited the estrogen response element-containing vitellogenin promoter expression as a pure estrogen antagonist. In two well characterized osteoclast differentiation models, TGF beta 3 significantly inhibited the differentiation and bone-resorptive activities of murine and avian osteoclasts. These findings suggest that regulation of TGF beta 3 gene expression by raloxifene or estrogen in bone may be an important target to mediate bone maintenance.

Activation of the human estrogen receptor by estrogenic and antiestrogenic compounds in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a positive selection system.

The yeast URA3 gene was used as a reporter to investigate the activities of estrogenic and antiestrogenic compounds in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The control sequences of the wild type (wt) URA3 promoter were replaced with zero, two, or six copies of estrogen-response elements (ERE). Insertion of two and six copies of ERE rendered the expression of the URA3 gene to be dependent on the presence of the human estrogen receptor (ER) and the hormone 17beta-estradiol (E2). Two versions of the ER genes were constructed: a full-length wild-type ER (ERa-f) and a truncated ER with domains C, D, and E (ERcde). Both forms of the ER were able to activate the ERE-URA3 reporter in a hormone-dependent manner. The growth of yeast transformants were hormone-dependent when the reporter constructs were inserted into chromosomes using yeast integrating vectors (YIp) but not with the 2mu-based episomal (high-copy number, YEp) or centromeric (low-copy number, YCp) vectors. The integrated transformants were employed to investigate the effects of estrogenic and antiestrogenic compounds. The estrogenic compounds, E2, diethylstilbestrol (DES), and estrone (EST), activated expression of the reporter genes at 1 nM concentration, which is the same concentration exhibiting activity in mammalian cells. None of the antiestrogens, at concentrations up to 1 microM, including tamoxifen (TAM), raloxifene (RAL), and ICI 164,384 (ICI) antagonized 1 nM of E2 against either form of the ER. In fact, TAM, RAL, and ICI displayed slight agonistic activity at high concentrations of 300 nM or greater to the ERcde. This system can be used to investigate or clone the missing factor(s) that is responsible for the antagonistic activity of the ER in yeast, and is also suitable for screening for the effectors of the ER.

Synthesis and pharmacology of conformationally restricted raloxifene analogues: highly potent selective estrogen receptor modulators.

The 2-arylbenzothiophene raloxifene, 1, is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) which is currently under clinical evaluation for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. In vivo structure-activity relationships and molecular modeling studies have indicated that the orientation of the basic amine-containing side chain of 1, relative to the stilbene plane, is an important discriminating factor for the maintenance of tissue selectivity. We have constructed a series of analogues of 1 in which this side chain is held in an orientation which is orthogonal to the stilbene plane, similar to the low-energy conformation predicted for raloxifene. Herein, we report on the synthesis of these compounds and on their activity in a series of in vitro and in vivo biological assays reflective of the SERM profile. In particular, we describe their ability to (1) bind the estrogen receptor, (2) antagonize estrogen-stimulated proliferation of MCF-7 cells in vitro, (3) stimulate TGF-beta3 gene expression in cell culture, (4) inhibit the uterine effects of ethynyl estradiol in immature rats, and (5) potently reduce serum cholesterol and protect against osteopenia in ovariectomized (OVX) rats without estrogen-like stimulation of uterine tissue. These data demonstrate that one of these compounds, LY357489,4, is among the most potent SERMs described to date with in vivo efficacy on bone and cholesterol metabolism in OVX rats at doses as low as 0.01 mg/kg/d.

An estrogen receptor basis for raloxifene action in bone.

Although controversy remains regarding direct effects of estrogen on bone, in vivo data clearly show that estrogens suppress bone turnover, resulting in decreased bone resorption and formation activity. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), such as raloxifene, produce effects on bone which are very similar to those of estrogen. In vitro, both raloxifene and estrogen inhibit mammalian osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption activity, but only in the presence of IL-6. Data from a number of ovariectomized rat model manipulations (i.e. hypophysectomy, low calcium diet and drug combinations) demonstrate a strong parallel between the antiosteopenic effects of raloxifene and estrogen. A characteristic action of estrogens on the skeleton is inhibition of longitudinal bone growth, an effect which is not observed with other resorption inhibitors, including calcitonin and bisphosphonates. Consistent with an estrogen-like mechanism on bone, raloxifene inhibits longitudinal bone growth in growing rats. In addition to the overall similarity of the bone activity profile in animals, estrogen and raloxifene also produce similar effects on various signaling pathways relative to the antiosteopenic effect of these two agents. For example, IL-6, a cytokine involved in high turnover bone resorption following estrogen deficiency in rats, is suppressed by both raloxifene and estrogen. Raloxifene and estrogen also produce a similar activation of TGF-beta3 (a cytokine associated with inhibition of osteoclast differentiation and activity) in ovariectomized rats. Like 17beta-estradiol, raloxifene binds with high affinity to both estrogen receptor-alpha (ER alpha) and estrogen receptor-beta (ER beta). Crystal structure analyses have shown that 17beta-estradiol and raloxifene bind to ER alpha with small, but important, differences in three dimensional structure. These subtle differences in the conformation of the ligand:receptor complex are likely the basis for the key pharmacological differences between estrogens and the various SERMs (i.e. raloxifene vs tamoxifen). Raloxifene also produces estrogen-like effects on serum cholesterol metabolism and the vasculature. Thus, while raloxifene exhibits a complete estrogen antagonist in mammary tissue and the uterus, it produces beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system and prevents bone loss via an estrogen receptor mediated mechanism.

Evaluation of the major metabolites of raloxifene as modulators of tissue selectivity.

Raloxifene (LY139481 HCl) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) which blocks the effects of estrogen on some tissues, such as the breast and uterus, while mimicking estrogen in other tissues, such as bone. To study the origins of this unique pharmacology, we have prepared the major metabolites of raloxifene as chemical probes for examining the estrogen receptor function in vitro and in vivo. In human breast cancer cell (MCF-7) related assays, these glucuronide conjugates show little affinity for the estrogen receptor and are more than two orders of magnitude less potent at inhibiting cell proliferation than raloxifene. In non-traditional estrogen target tissue, such as bone, these metabolites are less effective than the parent at inhibiting cytokine-stimulated bone resorbing activity in rat osteoclasts or producing transforming growth factor beta-3 (TGF-beta3). In animal models, tissue distribution studies with radiolabelled metabolite indicate that conversion to raloxifene occurs readily in a variety of tissues including the liver, lung, spleen, kidney, bone and uterus. Differential conversion of metabolite in target organs, such as bone and the uterus, is not observed indicating that the origin of raloxifene's pharmacology does not result from tissue-selective deconjugation of metabolite to parent.

Genetic analysis of four porcine avian influenza viruses isolated from Shandong, China.

A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of eight separate gene segments indicated A/Swine/Shandong/2/2003 (H5N1), A/Swine/Shandong/na/2003 (H9N2), A/Swine/Shandong/nb/2003 (H9N2) and A/Swine/Shandong/nc/2005 (H9N2) probably represent two multiple reassortant lineages, that had not been described before, with genes coming from H5N1, H9N2 and other lineages from poultry in Asia. Amino acid motifs within the haemagglutinin sequence of A/Swine/Shandong/nb/2003 suggested it may be able to infect people, whereas the sequences of the other three isolates suggested they would not have had that capability. Our analysis emphasizes the need for a comprehensive study of the interactions between H5N1 and H9N2 viruses in Asia that includes sequencing and phylogenetic investigation.

Characterization of a mutant pancreatic eIF-2alpha kinase, PEK, and co-localization with somatostatin in islet delta cells.

Phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor-2alpha (eIF-2alpha) is one of the key steps where protein synthesis is regulated in response to changes in environmental conditions. The phosphorylation is carried out in part by three distinct eIF-2alpha kinases including mammalian double-stranded RNA-dependent eIF-2alpha kinase (PKR) and heme-regulated inhibitor kinase (HRI), and yeast GCN2. We report the identification and characterization of a related kinase, PEK, which shares common features with other eIF-2alpha kinases including phosphorylation of eIF-2alpha in vitro. We show that human PEK is regulated by different mechanisms than PKR or HRI. In contrast to PKR or HRI, which are dependent on autophosphorylation for their kinase activity, a point mutation that replaced the conserved Lys-614 with an alanine completely abolished the eIF-2alpha kinase activity, whereas the mutant PEK was still autophosphorylated when expressed in Sf-9 cells. Northern blot analysis indicates that PEK mRNA was predominantly expressed in pancreas, though low expression was also present in several tissues. Consistent with the high levels of mRNA in pancreas, the PEK protein was only detected in human pancreatic islets, and the kinase co-localized with somatostatin, a pancreatic delta cell-specific hormone. Thus PEK is believed to play an important role in regulating protein synthesis in the pancreatic islet, especially in islet delta cells.

Molecular determinants of tissue selectivity in estrogen receptor modulators.

Interaction of the estrogen receptor/ligand complex with a DNA estrogen response element is known to regulate gene transcription. In turn, specific conformations of the receptor-ligand complex have been postulated to influence unique subsets of estrogen-responsive genes resulting in differential modulation and, ultimately, tissue-selective outcomes. The estrogen receptor ligands raloxifene and tamoxifen have demonstrated such tissue-specific estrogen agonist/antagonist effects. Both agents antagonize the effects of estrogen on mammary tissue while mimicking the actions of estrogen on bone. However, tamoxifen induces significant stimulation of uterine tissue whereas raloxifene does not. We postulate that structural differences between raloxifene and tamoxifen may influence the conformations of their respective receptor/ligand complexes, thereby affecting which estrogen-responsive genes are modulated in various tissues. These structural differences are 4-fold: (A) the presence of phenolic hydroxyls, (B) different substituents on the basic amine, (C) incorporation of the stilbene moiety into a cyclic benzothiophene framework, and (D) the imposition of a carbonyl "hinge" between the basic amine-containing side chain and the olefin. A series of raloxifene analogs that separately exemplify each of these differences have been prepared and evaluated in a series of in vitro and in vivo assays. This strategy has resulted in the development of a pharmacophore model that attributes the differences in effects on the uterus between raloxifene and tamoxifen to a low-energy conformational preference imparting an orthogonal orientation of the basic side chain with respect to the stilbene plane. This three-dimensional array is dictated by a single carbon atom in the hinge region of raloxifene. These data indicate that differences in tissue selective actions among benzothiophene and triarylethylene estrogen receptor modulators can be ascribed to discrete ligand conformations.