Diversity and evolution of avian influenza viruses in live poultry markets, free-range poultry and wild wetland birds in China.

The wide circulation of novel avian influenza viruses (AIVs) highlights the risk of pandemic influenza emergence in China. To investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of AIVs in different ecological contexts, we surveyed AIVs in live poultry markets (LPMs), free-range poultry and the wetland habitats of wild birds in Zhejiang and Hubei provinces. Notably, LPMs contained the highest frequency of AIV infection, and the greatest number of subtypes (n = 9) and subtype co-infections (n = 14), as well as frequent reassortment, suggesting that they play an active role in fuelling AIV transmission. AIV-positive samples were also identified in wild birds in both provinces and free-range poultry in one sampling site close to a wetland region in Hubei. H9N2, H7N9 and H5N1 were the most commonly sampled subtypes in the LPMs from Zhejiang, whilst H5N6 and H9N2 were the dominant subtypes in the LPMs from Hubei. Phylogenetic analyses of the whole-genome sequences of 43 AIVs revealed that three reassortant H5 subtypes were circulating in LMPs in both geographical regions. Notably, the viruses sampled from the wetland regions and free-range poultry contained complex reassortants, for which the origins of some segments were unclear. Overall, our study highlights the extent of AIV genetic diversity in two highly populated parts of central and south-eastern China, particularly in LPMs, and emphasizes the need for continual surveillance.

Specific interference shRNA-expressing plasmids inhibit Hantaan virus infection in vitro and in vivo.

AIM: To investigate the antiviral effects of vectors expressing specific short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) against Hantaan virus (HTNV) infection in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: Based on the effects of 4 shRNAs targeting different regions of HTNV genomic RNA on viral replication, the most effective RNA interference fragments of the S and M genes were constructed in pSilencer-3.0-H1 vectors, and designated pSilencer-S and pSilencer-M, respectively. The antiviral effect of pSilencer-S/M against HTNV was evaluated in both HTNV-infected Vero-E6 cells and mice. RESULTS: In HTNV-infected Vero-E6 cells, pSilencer-S and pSilencer-M targeted the viral nucleocapsid proteins and envelope glycoproteins, respectively, as revealed in the immunofluorescence assay. Transfection with pSilencer-S or pSilencer-M (1, 2, 4 µg) markedly inhibited the viral antigen expression in dose- and time-dependent manners. Transfection with either plasmid (2 µg) significantly decreased HTNV-RNA level at 3 day postinfectin (dpi) and the progeny virus titer at 5 dpi. In mice infected with lethal doses of HTNV, intraperitoneal injection of pSilencer-S or pSilencer-M (30 µg) considerably increased the survival rates and mean time to death, and significantly reduced the mean virus yields and viral RNA level, and alleviated virus-induced pathological lesions in lungs, brains and kidneys. CONCLUSION: Plasmid-based shRNAs potently inhibit HTNV replication in vitro and in vivo. Our results provide a basis for development of shRNA as therapeutics for HTNV infections in humans.

Antivirals for Respiratory Viral Infections: Problems and Prospects.

In the past two decades, several newly emerging and reemerging viral respiratory pathogens including several influenza viruses (avian influenza and pandemic influenza), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), have continued to challenge medical and public health systems. Thereafter, the development of cost-effective, broad-spectrum antiviral agents is the urgent mission of both virologists and pharmacologists. Current antiviral developments have focused targets on viral entry, replication, release, and intercellular pathways essential for viral life cycle. Here, we review the current literature on challenges and prospects in the development of these antivirals.

High Human Cytomegalovirus IgG Level is Associated with Increased Incidence of Diabetic Atherosclerosis in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients.

BACKGROUND At present, whether human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is debatable. The effect of active HCMV infection on glucose regulation has been poorly studied. Although HCMV infection is correlated with atherosclerosis in cardiovascular disease, the role of HCMV infection in the development of diabetic atherosclerosis in T2DM is unclear and is usually neglected by endocrinologists. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of HCMV infection on glucose regulation and the development of diabetic atherosclerosis in T2DM patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS A total of 222 hospitalized T2DM patients were enrolled. Nested polymerase chain reactions were used to detect HCMV DNA extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to determine viral load. HCMV IgG antibody concentrations were analyzed by chemiluminescence immunoassay. RESULTS HCMV active infection, viral load, and HCMV IgG titers were not correlated with glucose regulation. Binary logistic regression demonstrated that the highest quartile of HCMV IgG concentration (>500 U/ml) was correlated with the incidence of diabetic atherosclerosis (OR: 8.0, 95%CI: 2.3-27.2), and that titer >127 U/ml of HCMV IgG is an independent predictor for the development of diabetic atherosclerosis in T2DM patients (OR: 4.6, 95%CI: 1.9-11.3) after adjustment for all potential confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS Active HCMV infection is unlikely to influence glucose regulation in T2DM. However, HCMV IgG titers are associated with the incidence of diabetic atherosclerosis, and titer >127 U/ml of HCMV IgG might be an independent risk factor for the development of diabetic atherosclerosis in T2DM patients.

Establishment of SYBR green-based qPCR assay for rapid evaluation and quantification for anti-Hantaan virus compounds in vitro and in suckling mice.

Hantaan viruses cause two severe diseases lacking efficient treatment, yet no effective prophylactic vaccines are available. Continued exploration of alternative antiviral agents to treat hantavirus-related syndromes remains compulsory. The fluorescence-based quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) has become the touchstone for target gene quantification. In the present study, standard curves for Hantaan virus (HTNV), mouse, and human glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were generated by serial 10-fold dilutions of the constructed recombinant plasmid pGEM-T/HTNV, pGEM-T/mouse-GAPDH, and pGEM-T/human-GAPDH, respectively. Comparisons between the indirect immunofluorescence assay and qPCR assay in the detection of HTNV-infected Vero E6 cells showed improved detection limit and sensitivity of latter method. To characterize the inhibitory effect of several conventional antivirals (arbidol and ribavirin) and unconventional antivirals (indomethacin and curcumin) on HTNV, the levels of viral RNAs were measured for 4 days post-treatment of HTNV-infected Vero E6 cells and 18 days post-inoculation of HTNV-infected suckling mice. Our results validated that HTNV was sensitive to ribavirin and arbidol treatment, while indomethacin and curcumin may also be therapeutically effective in treating HTNV infection. As a result, the establishment and application of qPCR may be a useful tool for the evaluation of potential antivirals for Hantaan virus infection in vitro and in vivo.

Characteristics of human infection with avian influenza viruses and development of new antiviral agents.

Since 1997, several epizootic avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have been transmitted to humans, causing diseases and even deaths. The recent emergence of severe human infections with AIV (H7N9) in China has raised concerns about efficient interpersonal viral transmission, polygenic traits in viral pathogenicity and the management of newly emerging strains. The symptoms associated with viral infection are different in various AI strains: H5N1 and newly emerged H7N9 induce severe pneumonia and related complications in patients, while some H7 and H9 subtypes cause only conjunctivitis or mild respiratory symptoms. The virulence and tissue tropism of viruses as well as the host responses contribute to the pathogenesis of human AIV infection. Several preventive and therapeutic approaches have been proposed to combat AIV infection, including antiviral drugs such as M2 inhibitors, neuraminidase inhibitors, RNA polymerase inhibitors, attachment inhibitors and signal-transduction inhibitors etc. In this article, we summarize the recent progress in researches on the epidemiology, clinical features, pathogenicity determinants, and available or potential antivirals of AIV.

Antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity of arbidol hydrochloride in influenza A (H1N1) virus infection.

AIM: To investigate the effects of arbidol hydrochloride (ARB), a widely used antiviral agent, on the inflammation induced by influenza virus. METHODS: MDCK cells were infected with seasonal influenza A/FM/1/47 (H1N1) or pandemic influenza A/Hubei/71/2009 (H1N1). In vitro cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of ARB was determined using MTT assay. BALB/c mice were infected with A/FM/1/47 (H1N1). Four hours later the mice were administered ARB (45, 90, and 180 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1)) or the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir (22.5 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1)) via oral gavage once a day for 5 d. Body-weight, median survival time, viral titer, and lung index of the mice were measured. The levels of inflammatory cytokines were examined using real-time RT-PCR and ELISA. RESULTS: Both H1N1 stains were equally sensitive to ARB as tested in vitro. In the infected mice, ARB (90 and 180 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1)) significantly decreased the mortality, alleviated virus-induced lung lesions and viral titers. Furthermore, ARB suppressed the levels of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α, and elevated the level of IL-10 in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids and lung tissues. However, ARB did not significantly affect the levels of IFN-α and IFN-γ, but reduced the level of IFN-ß1 in lung tissues at 5 dpi. In peritoneal macrophages challenged with A/FM/1/47 (H1N1) or poly I:C, ARB (20 µmol/L) suppressed the levels of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α, and elevated the level of IL-10. Oseltamivir produced comparable alleviation of virus-induced lung lesions with more reduction in the viral titers, but less effective modulation of the inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSION: ARB efficiently inhibits both H1N1 stains and diminishes both viral replication and acute inflammation through modulating the expression of inflammatory cytokines.

In vitro and in vivo studies of the inhibitory effects of emodin isolated from Polygonum cuspidatum on Coxsakievirus B4.

The lack of effective therapeutics for Coxsackievirus B4 (CVB4) infection underscores the importance of finding novel antiviral compounds. Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) is one of the natural anthraquinone derivatives obtained from the root and rhizome of Polygonum cuspidatum. In the present study, the possibility of using emodin as a potential antiviral to treat CVB4 infection was explored in vitro and in mice. Emodin reduced CVB4 entry and replication on Hep-2 cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with a 50% effective concentration (EC50) of 12.06 µM and selectivity index (SI) of 5.08, respectively. The inhibitory effect of emodin for CVB4 entry and replication was further confirmed by a quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) assay. The results further showed that the mice orally treated with different dosages of emodin displayed a dose dependent increase of survival rate, body weight and prolonged mean time of death (MTD), accompanied by significantly decreased myocardial virus titers and pathologic scores/lesions. Moreover, emodin could inhibit CVB4-induced apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Our results indicated that emodin could be used as potential antiviral in the post-exposure prophylaxis for CVB4 infection.

Pathogenicity of novel hantavirus isolate and antigenicity and immunogenicity of novel strain-based inactivated vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Hantaan virus (HTNV, Orthohantavirus hantanensae species, Hantaviridae family) is the main etiological agent responsible for hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). The novel HTNV may pose a potential danger to the control and prevention of HFRS in China, which highlights the importance of vaccine development in public health management. In previous studies, our laboratory discovered and successfully isolated a new HTNV strain, HV004 strain, from Apodemus agrarius captured in an epidemic area in Hubei, China. METHODS: An initial biological and pathogenicity characterization of HTNV 76-118 (standard train), HV114 strain (a clinical isolate from Hubei province in 1986), and the novel isolate HV004 strain from the epidemic areas of Hubei province were performed in susceptible cells and in vivo. An experimental HV004 strain inactivated vaccine was prepared, and its corresponding immunogenicity was analyzed in BALB/c mice. RESULTS: HV004 strain had a similar but higher pathogenicity than HTNV 76-118 and HV114 in suckling mice. A subcutaneous vaccination (s.c.) with the inactivated HTNV vaccine adjuvanted with aluminum, followed by a challenge intraperitoneally with 106 FFU/ml HTNV, afforded full protection against an HTNV challenge. All immunized mice in every group elicited serum neutralizing antibodies with increasing dosages, which may protect mice from HTNV infection. A dose-dependent stimulation index of splenocytes was also observed in immunized mice. The percentage of IFN-γ-producing CD3+CD8+ T cells was significantly higher in the spleens of immunized mice than in those of control mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the inactivated HTNV vaccine may stimulate mice to produce high levels of antibodies with neutralization activity and elicit specific anti-HTNV humoral and cellular immune responses in BALB/c mice against the prevalent strain of HTNV in south central China.

Incidence of Orthohantavirus infection in humans follows observed changes in rodent reservoirs, Hubei Province, China (1984-2010).

OBJECTIVE: Orthohantaviruses (genus Orthohantavirus, family Hantaviridae of order Bunyavirales) are rodent-borne viruses causing 2 human diseases: hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), which are mainly prevalent in Eurasia and the Americas, respectively. We initiated this study to investigate and analyze the Orthohantaviruses infection in rodent reservoirs and humans in the Hubei Province of China from 1984 to 2010. SAMPLE: The study included 10,314 mouse and 43,753 human serum samples. PROCEDURES: In this study, we analyzed the incidence of Orthohantavirus infection in humans and observed changes in rodent reservoirs in Hubei Province. RESULTS: The results indicated that although the incidence of HFRS declined from the 1990s, the human inapparent infection did not decrease dramatically. Although elements of the disease ecology have changed over the study period, Apodemus agrarius and Rattus norvegicus remain the major species and a constituent ratio of Rattus norvegicus increased. Rodent population density fluctuated between 16.65% and 2.14%, and decreased quinquennially, showing an obvious downward trend in recent years. The average orthohantaviruses-carrying rate was 6.36%, of which the lowest rate was 2.92% from 2006 to 2010. The analysis of rodent species composition showed that Rattus norvegicus and Apodemus agrarius were the dominant species over time (68.6% [1984 to 1987] and 90.4% [2000 to 2011]), while the composition and variety of other species decreased. The density of rodents was closely related to the incidence of HFRS (r = 0.910, P = .032). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Our long-term investigation demonstrated that the occurrence of HFRS is closely related to rodent demographic patterns. Therefore, rodent monitoring and rodent control measures for prevention against HFRS in Hubei are warranted.

Genetic characterization of a new subtype of Hantaan virus isolated from a hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) epidemic area in Hubei Province, China.

To characterize hantaviruses currently circulating in the hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) epidemic area of Hubei Province, rodents were captured and serum samples were collected from several HFRS patients. The partial S segment of the hantaviruses amplified from two serum samples had a high degree of sequence identity to the corresponding hantavirus strain isolated from Apodemus agrarius (designated as HV004). The complete S, M, and L segment sequences of HV004 were determined. The sequence identities between strain HV004 and other Hantaan viruses (HTNVs) were 83 %-90 % at the nucleotide level and 95 %-99 % at the amino acid level. Phylogenetic analysis showed that HV004 belonged to a new HTNV lineage. These data suggest the presence of a new HTNV subtype, which probably caused the HFRS cases in the endemic area of Hubei Province.

Amelioration of influenza virus-induced reactive oxygen species formation by epigallocatechin gallate derived from green tea.

AIM: To study whether epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a green tea-derived polyphenol, exerted anti-influenza A virus activity in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were tested. The antiviral activity of EGCG in the cells was determined using hemagglutination assay and qPCR. Time of addition assay was performed to determine the kinetics of inhibition of influenza A by EGCG. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined with confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. BALB/c mice were treated with EGCG (10, 20 or 40 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1), po) for 5 d. On the 3rd d of the treatment, the mice were infected with influenza A virus. Histopathological changes, lung index and virus titers in the lungs were determined. RESULTS: Treatment of influenza A-infected MDCK cells with EGCG (1.25-100 nmol/L) inhibited influenza A replication in a concentration-dependent manner (the ED(50) value was 8.71±1.11 nmol/L). Treatment with EGCG (20 nmol/L) significantly suppressed the increased ROS level in MDCK cells following influenza A infection. In BALB/c mice infected with influenza virus, oral administration of EGCG (40 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1)) dramatically improved the survival rate, decreased the mean virus yields and mitigated viral pneumonia in the lungs, which was equivalent to oral administration of oseltamivir (40 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1)), a positive control drug. CONCLUSION: The results provide a molecular basis for development of EGCG as a novel and safe chemopreventive agent for influenza A infection.

Lambda interferon inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of macrophages.

The newly identified type III interferon (IFN-lambda) has antiviral activity against a broad spectrum of viruses. We thus examined whether IFN-lambda has the ability to inhibit human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection of blood monocyte-derived macrophages that expressed IFN-lambda receptors. Both IFN-lambda1 and IFN-lambda2, when added to macrophage cultures, inhibited HIV-1 infection and replication. This IFN-lambda-mediated anti-HIV-1 activity is broad, as IFN-lambda could inhibit infection by both laboratory-adapted and clinical strains of HIV-1. Investigations of the mechanism(s) responsible for the IFN-lambda action showed that although IFN-lambda had little effect on HIV-1 entry coreceptor CCR5 expression, IFN-lambda induced the expression of CC chemokines, the ligands for CCR5. In addition, IFN-lambda upregulated intracellular expression of type I IFNs and APOBEC3G/3F, the newly identified anti-HIV-1 cellular factors. These data provide direct and compelling evidence that IFN-lambda, through both extracellular and intracellular antiviral mechanisms, inhibits HIV-1 replication in macrophages. These findings indicate that IFN-lambda may have therapeutic value in the treatment of HIV-1 infection.

Full genomic analysis of a porcine-bovine reassortant G4P[6] rotavirus strain R479 isolated from an infant in China.

During the 2004 surveillance of rotaviruses in Wuhan, China, a G4P[6] rotavirus strain R479 was isolated from a stool specimen collected from a 2-year-old child with diarrhea. The strain R479 had an uncommon subgroup specificity I + II, and analysis of the VP6 gene suggested that it was related to porcine rotaviruses. In the present study, full-length nucleotide sequences of all the RNA segments of R479 were determined and analyzed phylogenetically to identify the origin of individual RNA segments. According to the rotavirus genotyping system based on 11 RNA segments, the genotype of R479 was expressed as G4-P[6]-I5-R1-C1-M1-A1-N1-T7-E1-H1. This genotype includes the porcine-like VP6 genotype (I5) and bovine-like NSP3 genotype (T7). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that R479 genes encoding VP1, VP2, VP3, VP6, VP7, VP8*, NSP1, NSP4, and NSP5 were more closely related to those of porcine rotaviruses than human or other animal rotaviruses. In contrast, it was remarkable that the NSP3 gene of R479 was genetically closely related to only a bovine rotavirus strain UK. The NSP2 gene of R479 was also unique and clustered with only the G5P[8] human strain IAL28 and G3P[24] simian strain TUCH. These results suggested that R479 may be a reassortant virus having the NSP3 gene from a bovine rotavirus in the genetic background of a porcine rotavirus, with an NSP2 gene related to the porcine-human reassortant strain IAL28. To our knowledge, R479 is the first porcine-bovine reassortant rotavirus isolated from a human.

[Study on the transmission of Hantaan virus and Orientia tsutsugamushi by naturally dual infected Leptotrombidium scutellare through stinging].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether Leptotrombidium scutellare could be naturally infected by both Hantaan virus (HV) and Orientia tsutsugamushi (OT) and transmission status by stinging. METHODS: 3459 Leptotrombidium scutellares from mice bodies and 3265 which were free were collected in the epidemic area of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and tsutsugamushi disease.15 days later, the suspensions of lung and spleen of mice with 6 in a group stung by 1, 5 or 10 infected mites were injected intra-cerebrally into other mice for the detection of HV and OT in the next 6 generations of the mice, with immunofluorescent antibody technique (IFAT) and Giemsa staining technique. The passages of Vero-E6 cells inoculated on the aseptic filtrations from different number of infected mites were used to detect HV and OT pathogens. HV-RNA and OT-DNA were detected by PCR. RESULTS: After passage, HV positive mouse body mite group out of both 5 and 10 mites in the sixth generation, OT positive mouse body mite group out of the 10 mites in the sixth generation, both HV and OT positive mouse body mite group out of 1 mite in the fifth and sixth generation, both HV and OT positive mouse body mite group out of 5 and 10 mites in the sixth generation, and free mites group out of 1, 5 and 10 mites in the sixth generation, were found one mouse infected by both HV and OT, respectively. Out of the fourth generation of Vero-E6 cells, one sample was found both HV and OT positive out of 5 and 10 HV and OT mouse body mite group, respectively. In the sixth generation, both HV and OT positive cells were detected in one mouse mite group and the 1, 5, 10 free mite groups, respectively. HV-RNA and OT-DNA were all detected by PCR. CONCLUSION: Both HV and OT could be coexisted in wild Leptotrombidium scutellare and transmitted by stinging.

Efficacy of arbidol on lethal hantaan virus infections in suckling mice and in vitro.

AIM: Arbidol is an immunomodulator that was first developed in Russia. In this study, we report the antiviral activity of arbidol against Hantaan virus (HTNV) in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: The antiviral activity of arbidol in vitro was determined by plaque-forming assay, ranging from 0.5 to 8 microg/mL. To investigate whether arbidol has an antiviral effect in vivo, suckling BALB/c mice infected with HTNV were treated with arbidol at 24 h before infection with a 5, 10 or 20 mg.kg(-1).d(-1), once per day, for 10 days. On day 12 and 28 post infection (pi), histopathological changes and viral antigen were detected. On days 4, 8, 12, and 16 pi, the viral load of target organs and serum TNF-alpha levels of arbidol-treated animals were determined. RESULTS: Arbidol was found to have potent inhibitory activity against HTNV when added in vitro before or after viral infection, with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of 0.9 and 1.2 microg/mL, respectively. The 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) of arbidol for suckling mice was 78.42 mg.kg(-1).d(-1). Oral administration of arbidol increased both survival rate and mean time to death (MTD). Treatment with arbidol reduced histopathological changes, decreased viral load and viral antigen levels, and modulated the level of serum TNF-alpha. CONCLUSION: Arbidol has the ability to elicit protective antiviral activity against HTNV in vivo and in vitro.Acta Pharmacologica Sinica (2009) 30: 1015-1024; doi: 10.1038/aps.2009.53; published online 8 June 2009.

Antiviral Properties of R. tanguticum Nanoparticles on Herpes Simplex Virus Type I In Vitro and In Vivo.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), an enveloped DNA virus, plays a key role in varieties of diseases including recurrent cold sores, keratoconjunctivitis, genital herpes and encephalitis in humans. Great efforts have been made in developing more effective and less side-effects anti-herpes simplex virus agents, including traditional Chinese herbal medicines. In the present study, we evaluated the antiviral efficacy of Rheum tanguticum nanoparticles against HSV-1 in vitro and in vivo. R. tanguticum nanoparticles could inactivate the HSV-1 virions and block the viral attachment and entry into cells. Time-of-addition assay indicated that R. tanguticum nanoparticles could interfere with the entire phase of viral replication. Besides, R. tanguticum nanoparticles showed the ability to inhibit the mRNA expression of HSV-1 immediate early gene ICP4 and early gene ICP8 as well as the expression of viral protein ICP4 and ICP8. Moreover, R. tanguticum nanoparticles have been proved to protect mice against HSV-1 induced lethality by decreasing the viral load and alleviated pathological changes in brain tissues. In conclusion, we demonstrated that R. tanguticum nanoparticles could inhibit HSV-1 infection through multiple mechanisms. These results suggest that R. tanguticum nanoparticles may have novel roles in the treatment of HSV-1 infection.

Short hairpin RNA-mediated inhibition of HSV-1 gene expression and function during HSV-1 infection in Vero cells.

AIM: To evaluate the efficiency of 3 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) interfering with the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) gene coding glycoprotein D (gD) for inhibiting the gD expression and virus replication in vitro. METHODS: Vero cells were selected for an in vitro model of infection. Three shRNA sequences (shRNAgD1, -gD2, and -gD3) targeting specifically the gD gene of HSV-1 were selected for evaluating the antiviral effects. The antiviral effects of shRNA in the cells infected with HSV-1 were evaluated by cytopathic effect (CPE) observations and plaque assays. The transcription level of viral RNA and the gD expression were studied by RT-PCR, Western blotting, and flow cytometry. RESULTS: With the 3 shRNA at a final concentration of 120 nmol/L, a significant inhibition of CPE in the HSV-1-infected cells was observed. The ED50 of shRNA-gD1, gD2, and gD3 were 48.74+/-2.57, 57.13+/-3.24, and 114.64+/-5.12 nmol/L, respectively. The gD gene decreased significantly after viral infection in the Vero cells pretreated with shRNA compared to the virus group. The expressions of the gD protein, determined by Western blotting and flow cytometry, were also drastically decreased in shRNA-transfected cells. CONCLUSION: Exogenous shRNA molecules can suppress the HSV-1 gD expression. They are inhibitors of HSV replication during infection in Vero cells.

[Molecular epidemiological study on the host and role of the Hantavirus and Orientia tsutsugamushi in the same epidemic area].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether Hantavirus (HV) and Orientia tsutsugamushi ( OT) can naturally infect and coexist in their host and role. METHODS: By field epidemiological study, Leptotrombidium scutellare (3829) was collected and separated from mice(166) in epidemic areas. The cells of mites separated from their host and role were cultured. PCR was used to detect HV-RNA and OT-DNA in the cell culture. RESULTS: In 105 Apodemus agrarius, 3 HV-RNA positive, 2 OT-DNA positive and 2 coinfection with HV and OT were detected;in 41 Brown rattus, 2 HV-RNA positive, 1 OT-DNA positive and 1 co-infection with HV and OT were detected. From 15 mites co-infected with HV and OT, 2 strains of HV pathogen, 2 strains of OT pathogen were separated and 1 HV and OT pathogen in the same mite were separate. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrates that co-infection of HV and OT did simultaneously exist in wild Leptotrombidium scutellare. This theory has some significance to the epidemic and precaution of HV and OT.

[Antiviral effect of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) on influenza A virus].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) against the influenza A virus in vitro and in vivo. METHOD: The cell culture technique was used in MDCK cells to get cell viability at different concentration of EGCG by MTT assay. Cytopathic effect (CPE) and MTT were applied to observe the protective function of EGCG and it's ingredients were administered to cells in three different ways (method I: administration before infection, method II: administration upon infection, and method II: administration after infection) to treat the infectious model in vitro. The anti-viral activity in vivo was performed on BALB/c mice, which were divided to receive EGCG. The mean survival days and the pulmonary pathological lesions of the infected mice were observed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of EGCG. RESULT: EGCG effectively inhibited influenza A virus in vitro. The death rate and pulmonary pathological lesions were decreased, and the mean survival days were prolonged by oral administration of EGCG in the mice infected by influenza A virus. CONCLUSION: EGCG has a strong effect against influenza A H1 N1 virus in vitro and in vivo, in a dose-dependent manner.