The Birth of Hospital, Asclepius cult and Early Christianity.

History of hospital is one of main fields of researches in medical history. Besides writing a history of an individual hospital, considerable efforts have been made to trace the origin of hospital. Those who quest for the origin of hospital are faced with an inevitable problem of defining hospital. As the different definition can lead to a different outcome, it is important to make a clear definition. In this article, the hospital was defined as an institution in which patients are housed and given medical treatments. According to the definition, the Great Basilius is regarded to have created the first hospital in 369 CE. The creation of hospital is considered to be closely related with Christian philantrophy. However, the question is raised against this explanation. As the religious philantrophy does not exclusively belong to the Christianity alone, more comprehensive and persuasive theory should be proposed to explain why the first hospital was created in the Christian World, not in the Buddhistic or other religious world. Furthermore, in spite of sharing the same Christian background, why the first hospital appeared in Byzantine Empire, not in Western Roman Empire, also should be explained. My argument is that Asclepius cult and the favorable attitude toward medicine in Greek world are responsible to the appearance of the first hospital in Byzantine Empire. The evangelic work of Jesus was heavily depended on healing activities. The healing activities of Jesus and his disciples were rivalled by Asclepius cult which had been widely spread and practiced in the Hellenistic world. The temples of Asclepius served as a model for hospital, for the temples were the institution exclusively reserved for the patients. The exclusive housing of patients alone in the temples of Asclepius is clearly contrasted with the other early forms of hospitals in which not only patients but also the poor, foreigners and pilgrims were housed altogether. Toward the healing god Asclepius, the Latin Church fathers and Greek Church fathers showed significant difference of attitudes. The Latin fathers were generally very critical on Asclepius while the Greek fathers were more favorable to the same healing god. This difference is also considered to be an important factor that can explain why the first hospital appeared in the Byzantine Empire.

U.S. military administration's malaria control activities (1945-1948).

To prevent and control infectious diseases was one of the major concerns of U.S. military government when they stationed in Korea in 1945. It was because the spread of various infectious diseases can cause social unrest and they can also affect the U.S. military. Malaria was one of the most important infectious diseases to which the U.S. military had been paying special attention. The U.S. military received a severe damage during the Pacific war with Japan due to malaria. It was said that more soldiers were lost by malaria than by battle itself. The bitter experience they had during the war made them accumulate more systematic and practical knowledge against malaria. As a result, by the end of the war, the U.S. military could run more than hundreds of units specialized in controlling malaria. Thanks to such a preparation, they could immediately begin their anti-malaria activities in Korea soon after the World War II. Although the vivax malaria, which is the dominant type in Korea, is not as much a fatal type as that in the Pacific areas, it was damaging enough to the infected. The 207th Malaria Survey Detachment carried out collecting and identifying the kinds of mosquitos in Korea. In addition, they also surveyed the prevalence of malaria among school children in Seoul. In terms of controlling malaria, DDT played a decisive role. Vector control is the most effective and ideal measurements against malaria. Before the development of DDT, it was practically impossible to eradicate mosquitos which arise from extremely broad areas. However, DDT could not be used as it had been expected in the rural area, because spraying DDT in the rice paddies which is the breeding place of mosquitos kills rice. Despite such a limitation in anti-malaria activities of the US military government, it should be noted that a significant turn in controlling malaria was possible thanks to the development of DDT.

A History of Teaching Medical History in Medical Schools in Europe and America.

Medical history was an important part of medicine in the West from antiquity, through the Middle Ages, and until the Renaissance. Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were historical figures, but they dominated the medicine of the Western world at least until Renaissance. The medicine of the past, which did not become history, still remained an important part of present medicine. In the 19th century, medicine in the past is now relativized as an object of history. At the same time, the 'practicality' of medical science was emphasized. The practicality referred to here means that, unlike previous times, medicine in the past has been historicalized, but it can provide practical help to current medicine. In particular, in the era of positivism that dominated the late 19th century, this practicality was a core value of medical history. In the 20th century, the era of scientific medicine, the new role is given to medical history. It was to give a integrated view on contemporary medicine which was subdivided into many specialized fields. Along with this, medical history, once a main part of medicine, moves to the field of history. At the same time, the rise of medical humanities in medical education becomes an opportunity to redefine the role of medical history. Seeking productive cooperation with other humanities and social sciences that deal with medical issues, such as medical anthropology, medical sociology, and literature, will be a new task given to medical history today.

Psychiatric Casualties during the Korean War: Focusing on American and Common Wealth Soldiers.

A crucial gap in the medical history of the Korean War is the history of psychiatry during the Korean War. War puts those who participate in it through physical and mental extremes, inflicting not only physical injuries but also psychological trauma and damage. However, studies of the medical aspects of the Korean War have been limited to topics related to physical injuries and their treatment, and there are no studies that systematically summarize the traumatic effects on the human mind thrown into the midst of the war, the consequences of these effects, and the medical efforts made to deal with these problems. As the Korean War was fought only five years after the end of the Second World War, the experiences and achievements of the Second World War were used in the Korean War. In terms of personnel, many of the soldiers who fought in the Second World War also fought in the Korean War. This continuity with the Second World War had both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, treatment and transport systems were quickly put in place to respond to the large numbers of soldiers with psychiatric problems on the front lines early in the war. This is an example of a positive use of the legacy of the Second World War. On the other hand, the negative side of the coin was the much higher frequency of psychiatric symptoms among veterans of the Second World War. This could be explained by the fact that the psychological trauma experienced on the battlefield during the Second World War remained latent and was reactivated in the Korean War as a kind of conditioned reflex. In addition, the brainwashing of prisoners of war and their subsequent psychological problems are also characteristic of the Korean War in the context of the Cold War. These psychiatric features of the Korean War will provide a useful historical example for understanding and helping those who are inevitably involved in war and suffer from mental distress.

[Zhuzhiqunzheng, the Jesuit translation of Western medicine and its influence on Korean and Chinese intellectuals].

The Jesuits were great transmitters of Western science to East Asia in the 17th and 18th century. In 1636, a German Jesuit missionary Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666) published a book titled Zhuzhiqunzheng (Hundreds of Signs Testifying Divine Providence). The book was not Adam Schall's own writing, but it was the Chinese translation of De providentia numinis (1613) of Leonardus Lessius (1554-1623) who was also a Jesuit scholar. The book was a religious work which particularly aimed at converting the pagans to the Christianity by presenting them with hundreds of signs testifying the divine providence. One group of the signs is those manifested in the human body. The bodily signs in question include anatomical structures and physiological processes. It gives a brief survey of bodily structures with bones and muscles. The translator had much difficulties in explaining muscles for there was no corresponding concept in Chinese medicine. The theory of human physiology was a simplified version of medieval Galenism. Three kinds of pneuma were translated into three kinds of Qi respectively. 'Natural pneuma'was translated into 'Qi of the body nature', 'vital pneuma' into 'Qi of life and nourishing', 'psychic pneuma' into 'Qi of movement and consciousness'. The book of Schall von Bell and other books on Western science written in Chinese were also imported to Korea during the 17th and 18th century. Unlike China, Korea was very hostile to Christianity and no Jesuit could enter Korea. Only the books on Western science could be imported. The books, which were called Books on Western Learning, were circulated and read among the progressive Confucian literati. However, Western medicine thus introduced had little influence on the traditional medicine of East Asia. However, some intellectuals paid attention to the physiological theory, in particular the theory of brain centrism, which fueled a philosophical debate among Korean intellectuals of the time.

[Heat and Fever in ancient Greek physiology].

This paper aims at clarifying the relationship of physiological heat and pathological heat(fever) using the theoretical scheme of Georges Canguilhem as is argued in his famous book The Normal and the Pathologic. Ancient authors had presented various views on the innate heat and pathological heat. Some argued that there is only pathological heat while others, like Galen, distinguished two different kinds of heat. Galen was the first medial author who had the clear notion of the relationship between the normal heat and the pathological heat. He conceptualized their difference as the heat conforming to nature (kata phusin) and the heat against nature (para phusin). However, the Peripatetic authors, such as ps-Alexander Aphrodisias, who laid more emphasis on physiology tended to regard pathology in continuation with physiology as Claude Bernard attempted to do it. Therefore, Canguilhem's theoretical scheme turns out to be very useful in analysing the relationship of normal heat and pathological heat as is manifested in ancient Greek physiology.

[The establishment of SUMC (Severance Union Medical College) Psychiatry Department and the formation of humanistic tradition].

Psychiatry is a branch of medicine which deals with the problem of mental health. Although psychiatric concept and treatment is not absent in traditional medicine in Korea, it was not regarded as an independent discipline of medicine. Modern psychiatry was introduced into Korea as modern Western medicine w as introduced in 19th century. The American medical missionary Dr. Allen and Dr. Heron gave the first classification of mental diseases of Korean patients in their first year report of Jejoongwon hospital. The statistics are characterized by relatively high rate of hysteria patients among the patients with mental disorders. It was Dr. Mclaren who took the charge of the Psychiatric Department of Severance hospital, the successor of Jejoongwon hospital. As a psychiatrist, Dr. Mclaren had a deep interest in human nature and mind. His thinking on the subjects was based on his Christian faith and philosophy. He claimed that Christian faith plays an important role in curing mental diseases. And several medical students decided to become a psychiatrist under his influence. Among them is Dr. Lee Chung Chul who took the charge of the Department of Psychiatry after Mclaren. After graduation in 1927, Dr. Lee studied in Peking Union Medical College, Australia, and Japan. His main research interests were focused on the biological aspects of mental disorders, and he published several important papers on the subject. But his unexpected early resignation and subsequent expulsion of Dr. Mclaren from Korea by Japanese colonial government hindered further development of psychiatry in Severance Union Medical College until the Liberation from Japanese occupation in 1945. But some of their students specialized in psychiatry during the hard period of early 1940s and they played an important role in the development of modem psychiatry in Korea after the Liberation.

[Traditional medicine seen from the perspective of Western medicine during the late 19th and early 20th century in Korea].

From the 18th century traditional medicine began to be criticised by some of Korean intellectuals who attained the knowledge of Western medicine through the imported books on Western science. In the early 20th century, Western medical doctors in Korea generally had critical attitude toward traditional medicine. Their critical opinions on traditional medicine are typically recognizable in the debate between two camps that occurred in 1930s. However, some exceptional doctors such as Chang Ki-moo and Bang Hap-shin had special interest in traditional medicine despite their education in Western medicine. It was their clinical experience of the limitation of Western medicine which led them to study traditional medicine. Both of them were particularly attracted by the School of Old Prescriptions, which was a school of Japanese traditional medicine. The medical theory of the school was characterized by the simplification of vague and complicated theory of traditional medicine. The school held the theory that all diseases are caused by one poison. Consequently, treatment of all diseases consists in eliminating the poison. He also put forward a theory of one prescription for one disease, and therefore the same remedy should be applied to a disease with the same cause even though it might manifest various symptoms. Given the fact that their theory of diseases is very similar to that of Western medicine, it is understandable that they were attracted to the School of Old Prescriptions. As the doctors trained in Western medicine, they were possibly more familiar with the doctrine of the School of Old Prescriptions than the traditional medicine based on Yin Yang and Five-Phase theory.

[The gaze of the others: how the Western medical missionaries viewed the traditional Korean medicine].

It is generally known that the Western medical missionaries played an important role in introducing Western medicine into Korea. However, little is known about their role in introducing traditional medicine of Korea to the Western world. The present paper aims at showing various efforts of the Western medical missionaries to understand the Korean traditional medicine and to introduce it to the Western world. Allen payed attention to the clinical effect and commercial value of the Ginseng; Busteed gave anthropological descriptions of the traditional medical practice; Landis translated a part of the most cherished medical textbook of Korean traditional medicine Dong-Eui-Bo-Gam (see text) into English; Mills, along with his colleagues in Severance Union Medical College, tried more scientific approaches toward the traditional medicine. All these various efforts proves that the attitudes of the Western medical missionaries cannot be summarized as one simplistic view, that is, the orientalism, a term which is quite en vogue today. Of course, we cannot deny that there may be such elements, but to simplify the whole history as such does not only reflect the fact, but also miss a lot of things to be reflected in history.

[Hippocrates and the nineteenth-century French medicine].

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, has been represented in many ways throughout the history of medicine. His influence on later medicine took different forms from one epoch to another. Hippocrates' medical doctrine was quite influential until Renaissance period, and with the arrival of modern medicine, the method or the spirit of Hippocrates had been valued more highly than his medical doctrine. Nineteenth century French medicine shows us how the influence of Hippocrates is still vivid even in the nineteenth century. Hippocrates, as the author of the Air, Water, Places, became the founder of environmental medicine with the flourishing of meteorological medicine. And in the hands of medical ideologies he also became a proclaimer of the ideology that stressed the correspondence between men, society and nature. Laennec represented Hippocrates as the true pioneer in Clinical Medicine to which he himself made a great contribution. These various images of Hippocrates show us the universal nature of his medicine.

[The concept of disease in Galen].

Galen was, with no doubt, a great authority in ancient medicine rivalled only with "the father of medicine" Hippocrates. His medicine inherited not only Hippocratic tradition, which is characterized by dynamic pathology, but also Alexandrian medicine, which made a great contribution to anatomy. He did not generalize all the pathological phenomena according to one dogmatic theory. His medicine was open to all kinds of medicine, but he was quite selective in receiving different medical traditions.Galen defined disease as impairment of bodily activities. Whatever that impairs the bodily activities is the cause of disease. Galen' s pathology is built upon two heterogeneous medical traditions: 1) Dynamic pathology of the Hippocratic medicine, but which ignored anatomy 2) Anatomical pathology of Alexandrian medicine. Galen integrated these two different traditions by his concept of disease. His definition of disease, impairment of bodily activities, made it possible to harmorize these two different traditions otherwise which would have been conflictual. It is Galen' s great contribution to Western medicine to have laid a foundation of pathology by combining physiological and anatomical point of view .

[A history of the research department of the Severance Union Medical College].

The Research Department of the Severance Union Medical College was founded on November 4th, 1914. Drs. R. G. Mills, J. D. VanBuskirk and A. I. Ludlow were the co-founders of the department. The department aimed at investigating the medical problems of Koreans which originated from the difference of diet, customs and habits. The main fields of the research were divided into three: traditional medicine, diet of the Koreans, and special diseases in Korea. As to the research of the traditional medicine, Mills conducted extensive investigations on the drugs mentioned in the pharmacopeia of the traditional medical texts. His work included the translation of the medical texts into English, which unfortunately was not published, and the collection of thousands traditional drugs and botanical specimens. To the second field, VanBuskirk contributed much. His research was mainly focused on investigating the characteristics of Korean diet, finding out its problems, and recommending more balanced diet. The third field was the research of the diseases specific in Korea. The diseases caused by various parasites were the main targets of the research. At first, the Research Department was a laboratory where research was actually being carried out. But, its nature has been changed as each department became the center of research activities. The Research Department became a research promoting center which provides research funds for each department or individual researchers. The founding of the Research Department of the Severance Union Medical College marks a turning point in the history of SUMC in the sense that academic activities began to become more important in the missionary institute.

[A study on the true nature of "Chinese jinseng"].

Studies generally, it is believed that the ancient 'Chinese ginseng' did exist due to the fact that it is clearly recorded in the Chinese historical and medicine-related sources. Although it is hard to deny that such 'ginseng' did exist in ancient China, the re-examination of its true nature is also necessary. In other words, certain refutation can be made against the claim that ancient 'Chinese jinseng' was in fact 'Panax jinseng' (C. A. Mey.), since the Chinese jinseng accounts do not tell that it is such. For example, when looking into its shape based on descriptions, the 'Chinese Jinseng' has black seed, hairy stem, and violet flower. ' Panax jinseng' on the other hand, has opal seed, no-hair stem, and light-green flower. In terms of cultivation centre, most of mainland China is unsuitable for Jinseng production with the exception of the Shangdang area of Shanxi province, which solely had the reputation of being the production centre of ancient 'Chinese jinseng'. However, when looking into the Chinese sources for jinseng-producing areas, they show that Hepei and Liaoning province and Jiangnan (south of the Yangtze river) areas also have had some jinseng-related history. Regardless of such instance, these regions did not cultivate Panax jinseng. As shown above, ancient 'Chinese jinseng' was far from being identical, in respect to its shape or production areas, to Panax jinseng. Hence, this study came to the conclusion that there is indeed very high skepticism about whether the true nature of 'jinseng' in ancient China was in fact Panax jinseng. On the contrary, there is higher possibility that the ancient 'Chinese jinseng' is totally different plant from Panax jinseng which is actually Codonopsis pilosula. When examining the shape and production areas of Codonopsis pilosula, it is closely matched with many parts of ancient 'Chinese jinseng' texts. In short, it is presumed that the 'Chinese jinseng' did indeed exist in ancient China but it was Codonopsis pilosula instead of Panax jinseng.

[A study on the origins of 'Korean ginseng'].

Generally, the originating area of ginseng is known to be in Shangdang, China. The originating time, which has been estimated according to textual and archeological outcomes, is known to be the first century B.C., during the Han dynasty era. This can be referred to as the 'Chinese origin theory of ginseng'. According to such hypothesis, the Chinese only discovered ginseng 'suddenly' during this time when it should have been self-generating for thousands of years before. However, Shangdang has been one of the historic centers of China since the ancient period and specially took prominence in terms of the beginning and development of Chinese pharmaceutics, which makes this theory largely dismissable. Moreover, there were six characters that expressed at the early stage and were used together with each other up to the days of Ming and Qing dynasty. Also, this theory did not explain clearly about the formation of ginseng character. Hence, it is fairly obvious that the 'Chinese origin theory of ginseng' do not answer appropriately to the fundamental questions of the origin of ginseng. In order to approach such mystery , perspectives need to be newly shifted to the 'outer origins' of Chinese ginseng. In this case. 'outer' only points to Manchuria and Korea, since these areas are the only candidates regarding the natural circumstances of ginseng growth. So, it can be inferred that ginseng has first been identified with the locals of Manchuria and Korea, and then underwent influx to China to have been used as a medicinal stuff. Following such theory, the reason why ginseng suddenly appeared in Han China was that around this period, specially during the Han commandery epoch, it had just been introduced to China as a part of Korean culture. Also the reason there are many characters can be said that the sound of indigenous Korean 'sim' was considered in respect to selecting similarly-articulated words. Reaching such conclusion, the formating principle of can be no other than borrowing -sound character. To summarize our discussion, it is still unknown when was the actual origin of genseng but it was far earlier than two thousand years ago as was previously accepted as the origin of this medicine plant. . The originating place was not Shangdang of Shansi area of China as was commonly accepted, but Manchuria and Korea. Then, ginseng must have been known and utilized by the locals of these areas. This is 'Korean origin theory of ginseng' and simultaneously an indirect examination of the origin of 'Korean ginseng.'

[The ginseng growing district, taxation and trade in ancient Korea].

The very first record of ginseng in the Korean peninsula dates back to early 6th century A.D., with its concentration in Chinese sources. Regardless of the fact that the Korean ginseng was introduced to China before th birth of CHrist, there is no writing about it for 500 years. This is because the Chinese substituted Korean ginseng for the Chinese one, which was cultivated around the Shangdang Area. The ginseng, however, is greatly influenced by natural environment and its native area bing Manchurian and the Korean peninsula. It is believed that ginseng range from the northern mountains of Pyongando and Hamkyongdo provincnes to the southern Taebaek and Sobaek mountains in Korea. Especially the area of Madasan(Baekdusan?) mountain was well-known for ginseng-growing district. The ginseng taxation of the Three Kingdoms period seems to have gone through certain changes along the development stages of the ancient state. The first taxation stage is estimated to be in the form of a tribute. Afterwards, as the governing power of central government was gradually strengthened in the subjugated places, there was a major replacement from tributary form to actual goods levy. The actual areas of such tributary collection is unknown, but the Sejongshilok Chiriji (geographical records of Sejong chronicles) of the early Choson ear indicates 113 prefectures and countries as those which submit ginseng to the central government. These administrations provide permissible clues to the historic background of ginseng-taxed regions of the Three Kingdoms. The ginseng trade also is estimated to have flourished in ancient Korea through the Han commanderies of China. However, the writings of Korean ginseng trade is non-existent until 6th century A.D.. Such phenomenon can be attributed to few reasons. First, the Chinese took little interest in Korean ginseng as they believed they had their own native ginseng in China. Second, same ignorance resulted from its inflowing but new feature. Third, active communication became impossible as the Goguryo-China relations deteriorated overall after the closing of the commanderies. Nevertheless, ginseng eventually was properly introduced into China as the relations between regions improved after the 5th century A.D., which led the Chinese to realize the difference between Chinese and Korean ginseng. So it is estimated that such causes generated the real beginning of ginseng records in the 6th century. Based on the remaining texts, it can be inferred that trade in the Three Kingdoms era usually was conducted in each kingdom were all different, which was reflected in their respective contact with China. Such characteristics must have directly influenced their ginseng trade with China as well. For example, Shilla was only able to perform major ginseng commerce with China from the 7th century. There are various records of ginseng trade in Unified Shilla period, owing mostly to the previous tributary trade. Additionally, there is a case in which a certain individual presented Korean ginseng to a Chinese, as well as a case of Shilla ginseng trade in Japan. Aforementioned examples clearly illustrate that the fundamental structure of ginseng trade in East Asia was completed during the Unified Shilla period.

[A history of medical license in Korea].

Medical license is to qualify a person for medical practice and to attribute him/her a privileged right in the practice. This privileged and exclusive right asks for protection from the side of a state and the state in turn needs qualified medical personnel in order to carry out her task of public health, one of the main duties of modern states. In Europe, physicians succeeded in obtaining medical license that guarantees the privileged right in a highly competitive medical market against other practitioners. The first regulation for medical license in Korea was made in 1900 when few Korean doctors trained in Western medicine was in practice. The regulation aimed at controlling traditional medical practitioners who had been practicing medicine without any qualification as a physician. The regulation was very brief, consisting of only seven articles. A newly revised regulation appeared in 1913 when Korea was under the occupation of Japan. The Japanese Government-General enacted a series of regulations about medical personnel, including dentists and traditional medical practitioners. This heralds its full-scale engagement in medical affairs in Korea. Unlike the case of European countries where medical license was obtained after a long struggle with other practitioners, in Korea, medical license was given to doctors too easily from the state. And this experience played a very important role in the formation of identity of Korean doctors.

[Paul D. Choy: A life for learning].

Paul D. Choy was born on February 26th, 1896. He spent his childhood in Japan and America, and he returned to Korea when he turned twenty one years old. He graduated from Severance Union Medical College in 1921. After graduating the college, he went to Peking Union medical College to study parasitology. He came back to Korea after one year as the first parasitologist in Korea. On returning, he took the charge of the clinical laboratory of Severance Hospital. Before long he made another journey for study to Canada. He spent two years in Toronto University studying pathology. After studying pathology, he challenged a new field of medicine. It was medical jurisprudence. He stayed two years in Japan in order to earn his doctorate in medical jurisprudence in Tohoku Imperial College. This time he returned as the first specialist in medical jurisprudence in Korea. His field of study was not confined to medical field. He had a deep interest in current situation in Manchuria and Mongol, and wrote a book on this matter. His interest also extended to the history of ancient Korean people. He made extensive studies on this subject, which resulted in publishing a huge work on the origin of Korean people and it ancient history. He was a true pioneer of medicine in Korea and his life was characterized by endless quest for learning.