Ega3 from the fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus is an endo-α-1,4-galactosaminidase that disrupts microbial biofilms.

Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes both chronic and acute invasive infections. Galactosaminogalactan (GAG) is an integral component of the A. fumigatus biofilm matrix and a key virulence factor. GAG is a heterogeneous linear α-1,4-linked exopolysaccharide of galactose and GalNAc that is partially deacetylated after secretion. A cluster of five co-expressed genes has been linked to GAG biosynthesis and modification. One gene in this cluster, ega3, is annotated as encoding a putative α-1,4-galactosaminidase belonging to glycoside hydrolase family 114 (GH114). Herein, we show that recombinant Ega3 is an active glycoside hydrolase that disrupts GAG-dependent A. fumigatus and Pel polysaccharide-dependent Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms at nanomolar concentrations. Using MS and functional assays, we demonstrate that Ega3 is an endo-acting α-1,4-galactosaminidase whose activity depends on the conserved acidic residues, Asp-189 and Glu-247. X-ray crystallographic structural analysis of the apo Ega3 and an Ega3-galactosamine complex, at 1.76 and 2.09 Å resolutions, revealed a modified (ß/α)8-fold with a deep electronegative cleft, which upon ligand binding is capped to form a tunnel. Our structural analysis coupled with in silico docking studies also uncovered the molecular determinants for galactosamine specificity and substrate binding at the -2 to +1 binding subsites. The findings in this study increase the structural and mechanistic understanding of the GH114 family, which has >600 members encoded by plant and opportunistic human pathogens, as well as in industrially used bacteria and fungi.

PelA and PelB proteins form a modification and secretion complex essential for Pel polysaccharide-dependent biofilm formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The pellicle (PEL) polysaccharide is synthesized by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is an important biofilm constituent critical for bacterial virulence and persistence. PEL is a cationic polymer that promotes cell-cell interactions within the biofilm matrix through electrostatic interactions with extracellular DNA. Translocation of PEL across the outer membrane is proposed to occur via PelB, a membrane-embedded porin with a large periplasmic domain predicted to contain 19 tetratricopeptide repeats (TPRs). TPR-containing domains are typically involved in protein-protein interactions, and we therefore sought to determine whether PelB serves as a periplasmic scaffold that recruits other components of the PEL secretion apparatus. In this study, we show that the TPR domain of PelB interacts with PelA, an enzyme with PEL deacetylase and hydrolase activities. Structure determination of PelB TPRs 8-11 enabled us to design systematic deletions of individual TPRs and revealed that repeats 9-14, which are required for the cellular localization of PelA with PelB are also essential for PEL-dependent biofilm formation. Copurification experiments indicated that the interaction between PelA and PelB is direct and that the deacetylase activity of PelA increases and its hydrolase activity decreases when these proteins interact. Combined, our results indicate that the TPR-containing domain of PelB localizes PelA to the PEL secretion apparatus within the periplasm and that this may allow for efficient deacetylation of PEL before its export from the cell.

Dimeric c-di-GMP is required for post-translational regulation of alginate production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic human pathogen that secretes the exopolysaccharide alginate during infection of the respiratory tract of individuals afflicted with cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Among the proteins required for alginate production, Alg44 has been identified as an inner membrane protein whose bis-(3',5')-cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) binding activity post-translationally regulates alginate secretion. In this study, we report the 1.8 Å crystal structure of the cytoplasmic region of Alg44 in complex with dimeric self-intercalated c-di-GMP and characterize its dinucleotide-binding site using mutational analysis. The structure shows that the c-di-GMP binding region of Alg44 adopts a PilZ domain fold with a dimerization mode not previously observed for this family of proteins. Calorimetric binding analysis of residues in the c-di-GMP binding site demonstrate that mutation of Arg-17 and Arg-95 alters the binding stoichiometry between c-di-GMP and Alg44 from 2:1 to 1:1. Introduction of these mutant alleles on the P. aeruginosa chromosome show that the residues required for binding of dimeric c-di-GMP in vitro are also required for efficient alginate production in vivo. These results suggest that the dimeric form of c-di-GMP represents the biologically active signaling molecule needed for the secretion of an important virulence factor produced by P. aeruginosa.

Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa AlgL.

The periplasmic alginate lyase AlgL is essential for the synthesis and export of the exopolysaccharide alginate in Pseudomonas sp. and also plays a role in its depolymerization. P. aeruginosa PAO1 AlgL has been overexpressed and purified and diffraction-quality crystals were grown using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. The crystals grew as thin plates, with unit-cell parameters a = 56.4, b = 59.6, c = 102.1 Å, α = ß = γ = 90°. The AlgL crystals exhibited the symmetry of space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) and diffracted to a minimum d-spacing of 1.64 Å. Based on the Matthews coefficient (V(M) = 2.20 Å(3) Da(-1)), one molecule is estimated to be present in the asymmetric unit.

Combining in situ proteolysis and mass spectrometry to crystallize Escherichia coli PgaB.

The periplasmic poly-ß-1,6-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (PNAG) de-N-acetylase PgaB from Escherichia coli was overexpressed and purified, but was recalcitrant to crystallization. Use of the in situ proteolysis technique produced crystals of PgaB, but these crystals could not be optimized for diffraction studies. By analyzing the initial crystal hits using SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry, the boundaries of the protein species that crystallized were determined. The re-engineered protein target crystallized reproducibly without the addition of protease and with significantly increased crystal quality. Crystals of the selenomethionine-incorporated protein exhibited the symmetry of space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) and diffracted to 2.1 Šresolution.

SPACA6 ectodomain structure reveals a conserved superfamily of gamete fusion-associated proteins.

SPACA6 is a sperm-expressed surface protein that is critical for gamete fusion during mammalian sexual reproduction. Despite this fundamental role, little is known about how SPACA6 specifically functions. We elucidated the crystal structure of the SPACA6 ectodomain at 2.2-Å resolution, revealing a two-domain protein containing a four-helix bundle and Ig-like ß-sandwich connected via a quasi-flexible linker. This structure is reminiscent of IZUMO1, another gamete fusion-associated protein, making SPACA6 and IZUMO1 founding members of a superfamily of fertilization-associated proteins, herein dubbed the IST superfamily. The IST superfamily is defined structurally by its distorted four-helix bundle and a pair of disulfide-bonded CXXC motifs. A structure-based search of the AlphaFold human proteome identified more protein members to this superfamily; remarkably, many of these proteins are linked to gamete fusion. The SPACA6 structure and its connection to other IST-superfamily members provide a missing link in our knowledge of mammalian gamete fusion.

Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa AlgX.

AlgX is a periplasmic protein required for the production of the exopolysaccharide alginate in Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter vinelandii. AlgX has been overexpressed and purified and diffraction-quality crystals have been grown using iterative seeding and the hanging-drop vapor-diffusion method. The crystals grew as flat plates with unit-cell parameters a = 46.4, b = 120.6, c = 86.9 A, beta = 95.7 degrees . The crystals exhibited the symmetry of space group P2(1) and diffracted to a minimum d-spacing of 2.1 A. On the basis of the Matthews coefficient (V(M) = 2.25 A(3) Da(-1)), two molecules were estimated to be present in the asymmetric unit.

Substrate and product complexes of Escherichia coli adenylosuccinate lyase provide new insights into the enzymatic mechanism.

Adenylosuccinate lyase (ADL) catalyzes the breakdown of 5-aminoimidazole- (N-succinylocarboxamide) ribotide (SAICAR) to 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribotide (AICAR) and fumarate, and of adenylosuccinate (ADS) to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and fumarate in the de novo purine biosynthetic pathway. ADL belongs to the argininosuccinate lyase (ASL)/fumarase C superfamily of enzymes. Members of this family share several common features including: a mainly alpha-helical, homotetrameric structure; three regions of highly conserved amino acid residues; and a general acid-base catalytic mechanism with the overall beta-elimination of fumarate as a product. The crystal structures of wild-type Escherichia coli ADL (ec-ADL), and mutant-substrate (H171A-ADS) and -product (H171N-AMP.FUM) complexes have been determined to 2.0, 1.85, and 2.0 A resolution, respectively. The H171A-ADS and H171N-AMP.FUM structures provide the first detailed picture of the ADL active site, and have enabled the precise identification of substrate binding and putative catalytic residues. Contrary to previous suggestions, the ec-ADL structures implicate S295 and H171 in base and acid catalysis, respectively. Furthermore, structural alignments of ec-ADL with other superfamily members suggest for the first time a large conformational movement of the flexible C3 loop (residues 287-303) in ec-ADL upon substrate binding and catalysis, resulting in its closure over the active site. This loop movement has been observed in other superfamily enzymes, and has been proposed to be essential for catalysis. The ADL catalytic mechanism is re-examined in light of the results presented here.

Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of Pseudomonas fluorescens AlgK.

AlgK is an outer-membrane lipoprotein involved in the biosynthesis of alginate in Pseudomonads and Azotobacter vinelandii. A recombinant form of Pseudomonas fluorescens AlgK with a C-terminal polyhistidine affinity tag has been expressed and purified from the periplasm of Escherichia coli cells and diffraction-quality crystals of AlgK have been grown using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. The crystals grow as flat plates with unit-cell parameters a = 79.09, b = 107.85, c = 119.15 A, beta = 96.97 degrees. The crystals exhibit the symmetry of space group P2(1) and diffract to a minimum d-spacing of 2.5 A at Station X29 of the National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratory. On the basis of the Matthews coefficient (V(M) = 2.53 A3 Da(-1)), four protein molecules are estimated to be present in the asymmetric unit.

AlgK is a TPR-containing protein and the periplasmic component of a novel exopolysaccharide secretin.

The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa causes chronic biofilm infections in cystic fibrosis patients. During colonization of the lung, P. aeruginosa converts to a mucoid phenotype characterized by overproduction of the exopolysaccharide alginate. Here we show that AlgK, a protein essential for production of high molecular weight alginate, is an outer membrane lipoprotein that contributes to the correct localization of the porin AlgE. Our 2.5 A structure shows AlgK is composed of 9.5 tetratricopeptide-like repeats, and three putative sites of protein-protein interaction have been identified. Bioinformatics analysis suggests that BcsA, PgaA, and PelB, involved in the production and export of cellulose, poly-beta-1,6-N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine, and Pel exopolysaccharide, respectively, share the same topology as AlgK/E. Together, our data suggest that AlgK plays a role in the assembly of the alginate biosynthetic complex and represents the periplasmic component of a new type of outer membrane secretin that differs from canonical bacterial capsular polysaccharide secretion systems.

Modulation of activity by Arg407: structure of a fungal alpha-1,2-mannosidase in complex with a substrate analogue.

Class I alpha-mannosidases (glycoside hydrolase family GH47) play key roles in the maturation of N-glycans and the ER-associated degradation of unfolded glycoproteins. The 1.95 A resolution structure of a fungal alpha-1,2-mannosidase in complex with the substrate analogue methyl-alpha-D-lyxopyranosyl-(1',2)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside (LM) shows the intact disaccharide spanning the -1/+1 subsites, with the D-lyxoside ring in the -1 subsite in the 1C4 chair conformation, and provides insight into the mechanism of catalysis. The absence of the C5' hydroxymethyl group on the D-lyxoside moiety results in the side chain of Arg407 adopting two alternative conformations: the minor one interacting with Asp375 and the major one interacting with both the D-lyxoside and the catalytic base Glu409, thus disrupting its function. Chemical modification of Asp375 has previously been shown to inactivate the enzyme. Taken together, the data suggest that Arg407, which belongs to the conserved sequence motif RPExxE, may act to modulate the activity of the enzyme. The proposed mechanism for modulating the activity is potentially a general mechanism for this superfamily.

Structures of 5-methylthioribose kinase reveal substrate specificity and unusual mode of nucleotide binding.

The methionine salvage pathway is ubiquitous in all organisms, but metabolic variations exist between bacteria and mammals. 5-Methylthioribose (MTR) kinase is a key enzyme in methionine salvage in bacteria and the absence of a mammalian homolog suggests that it is a good target for the design of novel antibiotics. The structures of the apo-form of Bacillus subtilis MTR kinase, as well as its ADP, ADP-PO(4), AMPPCP, and AMPPCP-MTR complexes have been determined. MTR kinase has a bilobal eukaryotic protein kinase fold but exhibits a number of unique features. The protein lacks the DFG motif typically found at the beginning of the activation loop and instead coordinates magnesium via a DXE motif (Asp(250)-Glu(252)). In addition, the glycine-rich loop of the protein, analogous to the "Gly triad" in protein kinases, does not interact extensively with the nucleotide. The MTR substrate-binding site consists of Asp(233) of the catalytic HGD motif, a novel twin arginine motif (Arg(340)/Arg(341)), and a semi-conserved W-loop, which appears to regulate MTR binding specificity. No lobe closure is observed for MTR kinase upon substrate binding. This is probably because the enzyme lacks the lobe closure/inducing interactions between the C-lobe of the protein and the ribosyl moiety of the nucleotide that are typically responsible for lobe closure in protein kinases. The current structures suggest that MTR kinase has a dissociative mechanism.

Structure of Escherichia coli tryptophanase.

Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) dependent tryptophanase has been isolated from Escherichia coli and its crystal structure has been determined. The structure shares the same fold with and has similar quaternary structure to Proteus vulgaris tryptophanase and tyrosine-phenol lyase, but is found in a closed conformation when compared with these two enzymes. The tryptophanase structure, solved in its apo form, does not have covalent PLP bound in the active site, but two sulfate ions. The sulfate ions occupy the phosphoryl-binding site of PLP and the binding site of the alpha-carboxyl of the natural substrate tryptophan. One of the sulfate ions makes extensive interactions with both the transferase and PLP-binding domains of the protein and appears to be responsible for holding the enzyme in its closed conformation. Based on the sulfate density and the structure of the P. vulgaris enzyme, PLP and the substrate tryptophan were modeled into the active site. The resulting model is consistent with the roles of Arg419 in orienting the substrate to PLP and acidifying the alpha-proton of the substrate for beta-elimination, Lys269 in the formation and decomposition of the PLP quinonoid intermediate, Arg230 in orienting the substrate-PLP intermediates in the optimal conformation for catalysis, and His463 and Tyr74 in determining substrate specificity and suggests that the closed conformation observed in the structure could be induced by substrate binding and that significant conformational changes occur during catalysis. A catalytic mechanism for tryptophanase is proposed. Since E. coli tryptophanase has resisted forming diffraction-quality crystals for many years, the molecular surface of tryptophanase has been analyzed in various crystal forms and it was rationalized that strong crystal contacts occur on the flat surface of the protein and that the size of crystal contact surface seems to correlate with the diffraction quality of the crystal.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of 5'-methylthioribose kinase from Bacillus subtilis and Arabidopsis thaliana.

Recombinant Bacillus subtilis 5'-methylthioribose (MTR) kinase has been expressed, purified and subsequently crystallized using the hanging-drop vapor-diffusion technique. With PEG 2000MME as the precipitant, two different crystal forms have been grown in the absence and presence of the detergent CHAPS. These crystals belong to space groups P2(1)2(1)2(1) (unit-cell parameters a = 193.7, b = 83.2, c = 51.6 A) and P2(1)2(1)2 (unit-cell parameters a = 213.8, b = 83.2, c = 51.5 A), respectively. The crystals grown in the presence of CHAPS diffract to 2.2 A resolution at Station X8C, National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS). For both crystal forms, the presence of two monomers per asymmetric unit is predicted (Matthews coefficient V(M) = 2.29 and 2.52 A(3) Da(-1), respectively). Recombinant C-terminally histidine-tagged Arabidopsis thaliana MTR kinase has also been expressed, purified and refolded into its active form. Rod-shaped crystals of this protein were grown from PEG 8000 using the hanging-drop vapor-diffusion technique. These crystals exhibit the symmetry of space group C2 (unit-cell parameters a = 162.3, b = 83.3, c = 91.0 A, beta = 117.8 degrees ) and diffract to 1.9 A resolution at Station X8C, NSLS. Two monomers are estimated to be present in the asymmetric unit (V(M) = 2.82 A(3) Da(-1)).

Structure of Kre2p/Mnt1p: a yeast alpha1,2-mannosyltransferase involved in mannoprotein biosynthesis.

Kre2p/Mnt1p is a Golgi alpha1,2-mannosyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall glycoproteins. The protein belongs to glycosyltransferase family 15, a member of which has been implicated in virulence of Candida albicans. We present the 2.0 A crystal structures of the catalytic domain of Kre2p/Mnt1p and its binary and ternary complexes with GDP/Mn(2+) and GDP/Mn(2+)/acceptor methyl-alpha-mannoside. The protein has a mixed alpha/beta fold similar to the glycosyltransferase-A (GT-A) fold. Although the GDP-mannose donor was used in the crystallization experiments and the GDP moiety is bound tightly to the active site, the mannose is not visible in the electron density. The manganese is coordinated by a modified DXD motif (EPD), with only the first glutamate involved in a direct interaction. The position of the donor mannose was modeled using the binary and ternary complexes of other GT-A enzymes. The C1" of the modeled donor mannose is within hydrogen-bonding distance of both the hydroxyl of Tyr(220) and the O2 of the acceptor mannose. The O2 of the acceptor mannose is also within hydrogen bond distance of the hydroxyl of Tyr(220). The structures, modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and kinetic analysis suggest two possible catalytic mechanisms. Either a double-displacement mechanism with the hydroxyl of Tyr(220) as the potential nucleophile or alternatively, an S(N)i-like mechanism with Tyr(220) positioning the substrates for catalysis. The importance of Tyr(220) in both mechanisms is highlighted by a 3000-fold reduction in k(cat) in the Y220F mutant.

Structure of Penicillium citrinum alpha 1,2-mannosidase reveals the basis for differences in specificity of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi class I enzymes.

Class I alpha1,2-mannosidases (glycosylhydrolase family 47) are key enzymes in the maturation of N-glycans. This protein family includes two distinct enzymatically active subgroups. Subgroup 1 includes the yeast and human endoplasmic reticulum (ER) alpha1,2-mannosidases that primarily trim Man(9)GlcNAc(2) to Man(8)GlcNAc(2) isomer B whereas subgroup 2 includes mammalian Golgi alpha1,2-mannosidases IA, IB, and IC that trim Man(9)GlcNAc(2) to Man(5)GlcNAc(2) via Man(8)GlcNAc(2) isomers A and C. The structure of the catalytic domain of the subgroup 2 alpha1,2-mannosidase from Penicillium citrinum has been determined by molecular replacement at 2.2-A resolution. The fungal alpha1,2-mannosidase is an (alphaalpha)(7)-helix barrel, very similar to the subgroup 1 yeast (Vallée, F., Lipari, F., Yip, P., Sleno, B., Herscovics, A., and Howell, P. L. (2000) EMBO J. 19, 581-588) and human (Vallée, F., Karaveg, K., Herscovics, A., Moremen, K. W., and Howell, P. L. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 41287-41298) ER enzymes. The location of the conserved acidic residues of the catalytic site and the binding of the inhibitors, kifunensine and 1-deoxymannojirimycin, to the essential calcium ion are conserved in the fungal enzyme. However, there are major structural differences in the oligosaccharide binding site between the two alpha1,2-mannosidase subgroups. In the subgroup 1 enzymes, an arginine residue plays a critical role in stabilizing the oligosaccharide substrate. In the fungal alpha1,2-mannosidase this arginine is replaced by glycine. This replacement and other sequence variations result in a more spacious carbohydrate binding site. Modeling studies of interactions between the yeast, human and fungal enzymes with different Man(8)GlcNAc(2) isomers indicate that there is a greater degree of freedom to bind the oligosaccharide in the active site of the fungal enzyme than in the yeast and human ER alpha1,2-mannosidases.