Photocatalytic CH4-to-Ethanol Conversion on Asymmetric Multishelled Interfaces.

The selective oxidation of methane (CH4) features attractive potentials in both mitigating global warming and producing value-added chemicals. However, due to the short-life and unpaired concentrations of reactive intermediates (such as ·OH, ·CH3, and CO), the selective formation of multicarbon products like ethanol has remained challenging. In this work, we developed a hollow multishelled CeO2@PdO@FeOx nanosphere catalyst with two asymmetric and closely connected interfaces, featuring efficient in-tandem photo-oxidation of CH4 into ethanol with O2 as the oxidant. The outer FeOx surface promotes the photoreduction of the oxazole atoms in O2. In the meantime, the two asymmetric PdO/FeOx and CeO2/PdO catalytic interfaces enable selective photoactivation of CH4 to ·CH3 and then to CO, respectively, and the hollow multishelled structure further facilitates the directional transport and coupling of the as-generated ·CH3 and CO to produce ethanol. Under 100 mW·cm-2 light intensity and ambient conditions, the hollow multishelled CeO2@PdO@FeOx nanosphere photocatalyst exhibited a peak CH4-to-ethanol yield of 728 µmol·g-1·h-1 without photosensitizers or sacrificial agents, almost three times higher than the previous best reports on photocatalytic CH4 oxidation to ethanol, suggesting the attractive potential of the asymmetric multishelled catalytic interfaces.

Switching CO2 Electroreduction toward Ethanol by Delocalization State-Tuned Bond Cleavage.

The electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction by copper-based catalysts features a promising approach to generate value-added multicarbon (C2+) products. However, due to the unfavored formation of oxygenate intermediates on the catalyst surface, the selectivity of C2+ alcohols like ethanol remains unsatisfactory compared to that of ethylene. The bifurcation point (i.e., the CH2═CHO* intermediate adsorbed on Cu via a Cu-O-C linkage) is critical to the C2+ product selectivity, whereas the subsequent cleavage of the Cu-O or the O-C bond determines the ethanol or ethylene pathway. Inspired by the hard-soft acid-base theory, in this work, we demonstrate an electron delocalization tuning strategy of the Cu catalyst by a nitrene surface functionalization approach, which allows weakening and cleaving of the Cu-O bond of the adsorbed CH2═CHO*, as well as accelerating hydrogenation of the C═C bond along the ethanol pathway. As a result, the nitrene-functionalized Cu catalyst exhibited a much-enhanced ethanol Faradaic efficiency of 45% with a peak partial current density of 406 mA·cm-2, substantially exceeding that of unmodified Cu or amide-functionalized Cu. When assembled in a membrane electrode assembly electrolyzer, the catalyst presented a stable CO2-to-ethanol conversion for >300 h at an industrial current density of 400 mA·cm-2.

Electrokinetic Analysis-Driven Promotion of Electrocatalytic CO Reduction to n-Propanol.

The electrocatalytic carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide reduction reaction (CO2RR or CORR) features a sustainable method for reducing carbon emissions and producing value-added chemicals. However, the generation of C3 products with higher energy density and market values, such as n-propanol, remains highly challenging, which is attributed to the unclear formation mechanism of C3+ versus C2 products. In this work, by the Tafel slope analysis, electrolyte pH correlation exploration, and the kinetic analysis of CO partial pressure fitting, it is identified that both n-propanol and C2 products share the same rate-determining step, which is the coupling of two C1 intermediates via the derivation of the Butler-Volmer equation. In addition, inspired by the mechanistic study, it is proposed that a high OH─ concentration and a water-limited environment are beneficial for promoting the subsequent *C2-*C1 coupling to n-propanol. At 5.0 m [OH-], the partial current density of producing n-propanol (jn-propanol) reached 45 mA cm-2, which is 35 and 1.3 times higher than that at 0.01 m [OH-] and 1.0 m [OH-], respectively. This study provides a comprehensive kinetic analysis of n-propanol production and suggests opportunities for designing new catalytic systems for promoting the C3 production.

Tailoring the *CO and *H Coverage for Selective CO2 Electroreduction to CH4 or C2H4.

In the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR), the coverages of *CO and *H intermediates on a catalyst surface are critical for the selective generation of C1 or C2 products. In this work, we have synthesized several CuxZnyMnz ternary alloy electrocatalysts, including Cu8ZnMn, Cu8Zn6Mn, and Cu8ZnMn2, by varying the doping compositions of Zn and Mn, which are efficient in binding *CO and *H adsorbates in the CO2 electroreduction process, respectively. The increase of *H coverage allows to promotion of the CH4 and H2 formation, while the increase of the *CO coverage facilitates the production of C2H4 and CO. As a result, the Cu8ZnMn catalyst presented a high CO2-to-CH4 partial current density (-418 ± 22 mA cm-2) with a Faradaic efficiency of 55 ± 2.8%, while the Cu8Zn6Mn catalyst exhibited a CO2-to-C2H4 partial current density (-440 ± 41 mA cm-2) with a Faradaic efficiency of 58 ± 4.5%. The study suggests a useful strategy for rational design and fabrication of Cu electrocatalysts with different doping for tailoring the reduction products.

Electrocatalytic Glycerol Upgrading into Glyceric Acid on Ni3Sn Intermetallic Compound.

Electrochemical glycerol oxidation features an attractive approach of converting bulk chemicals into high-value products such as glyceric acid. Nonetheless, to date, the major product selectivity has mostly been limited as low-value C1 products such as formate, CO, and CO2, due to the fast cleavage of carbon-carbon (C-C) bonds during electro-oxidation. Herein, the study develops an atomically ordered Ni3Sn intermetallic compound catalyst, in which Sn atoms with low carbon-binding and high oxygen-binding capability allow to tune the adsorption of glycerol oxidation intermediates from multi-valent carbon binding to mono-valent carbon binding, as well as enhance *OH binding and subsequent nucleophilic attack. The Ni3Sn electrocatalyst exhibits one of the highest glycerol-to-glyceric acid performances, including a high glycerol conversion rate (1199 µmol h-1) and glyceric acid selectivity (62 ± 3%), a long electrochemical stability of > 150 h, and the capability of direct conversion of crude glycerol (85% purity) into glyceric acid. The work features the rational design of highly ordered catalytic sites for tailoring intermediate binding and reaction pathways, thereby facilitating the efficient production of high-value chemical products.

Efficient Electroreduction of Low Nitrate Concentration via Nitrate Self-Enrichment and Active Hydrogen Inducement on the Ce(IV)-Co3O4 Cathode.

Low concentrations of nitrate (NO3-) widely exist in wastewater, post-treated wastewater, and natural environments; its further disposal is a challenge but meaningful for its discharge goals. Electroreduction of NO3- is a promising method that allows to eliminate NO3- and even generate higher-value NH3. However, the massive side reaction of hydrogen evolution has raised great obstacles in the electroreduction of low concentrations of NO3-. Herein, we present an efficient electroreduction method for low or even ultralow concentrations of NO3- via NO3- self-enrichment and active hydrogen (H*) inducement on the Ce(IV)-Co3O4 cathode. The key mechanism is that the strong oxytropism of Ce(IV) in Co3O4 resulted in two changes in structures, including loose nanoporous structures with copious dual adsorption sites of Ce-Co showing strong self-enrichment of NO3- and abundant oxygen vacancies (Ovs) inducing substantial H*. Ultimately, the bifunctional role synergistically promoted the selective conversion of NH3 rather than H2. As a result, Ce(IV)-Co3O4 demonstrated a NO3- self-enrichment with a 4.3-fold up-adsorption, a 7.5-fold enhancement of NH3 Faradic efficiency, and a 93.1% diminution of energy consumption when compared to Co3O4, substantially exceeding other reported electroreduction cathodes for NO3- concentrations lower than 100 mg·L-1. This work provides an effective treatment method for low or even ultralow concentrations of NO3-.

Custom-Design of Strong Electron/Proton Extractor on COFs for Efficient Photocatalytic H2O2 Production.

The development of photocatalysts with continuous electron extraction and rapid proton transfer could kinetically accelerate the artificial photosynthesis, but remains a challenge. Herein, we report the topology-guided synthesis of a high-crystalline triazine covalent organic framework (COF) decorated by uniformly distributed polar oxygen functional groups (sulfonic group or carboxyl) as the strong electron/proton extractor for efficient photocatalytic H2O2 production. It was found that the polarity-based proton transfer as well as electron enrichment in as-obtained COFs played a crucial role in improving the H2O2 photosynthesis efficiency (i.e., with an activity order of sulfonic acid- (SO3H-COF)>carboxyl- (COOH-COF)>hydrogen- (H-COF) functionalized COFs). The strong polar sulfonic acid group in the high-crystalline SO3H-COF triggered a well-oriented built-in electric field and more hydrophilic surface, which serves as an efficient carrier extractor enabling a continuous transportation of the photogenerated electrons and interfacial proton to the active sites (i.e., C atoms linked to -SO3H group). As-accelerated proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET), together with the stabilized O2 adsorption finally leads to the highest H2O2 production rate of 4971 µmol g-1 h-1 under visible light irradiation. Meanwhile, a quantum yield of 15 % at 400 nm is obtained, superior to most reported COF-based photocatalysts.

Unconventional Electrocatalytic CO Conversion to C2 Products on Single-Atomic Pd-Agn Sites.

The electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2 into C2+ products has mostly been focused on Cu-based catalysts. Although Ag has also been predicted as a possible catalyst for the CO-to-C2+ conversion from the thermodynamic point of view, however, due to its weak CO binding strength, CO rapidly desorbs from the Ag surface rather than participates in deep reduction. In this work, we demonstrate that single-atomic Pd sites doped in Ag lattice can tune the CO adsorption behavior and promote the deep reduction of CO toward C2 products. The monodispersed Pd-Agn sites enable the CO adsorption with both Pd-atop (PdL) and Pd-Ag bridge (PdAgB) configurations, which can increase the CO coverage and reduce the C-C coupling energy barrier. Under room temperature and ambient pressure, the Pd1Ag10 alloy catalyst exhibited a total CO-to-C2 Faradaic efficiency of ~37 % at -0.83 V, with appreciable current densities and electrochemical stability, thus featuring unconventional non-Cu electrocatalytic CO-to-C2 conversion capability.

(111) Facet-oriented Cu2Mg Intermetallic Compound with Cu3-Mg Sites for CO2 Electroreduction to Ethanol with Industrial Current Density.

The efficient ethanol electrosynthesis from CO2 is challenging with low selectivity at high CO2 electrolysis rates, due to the competition with H2 and other reduction products. Copper-based bimetallic electrocatalysts are potential candidates for the CO2-to-ethanol conversion, but the secondary metal has mainly been focused on active components (such as Ag, Sn) for CO2 electroreduction, which also promote selectivity of ethylene or other reduction products rather than ethanol. Limited attention has been given to alkali-earth metals due to their inherently active chemical property. Herein, we rationally synthesized a (111) facet-oriented nano Cu2Mg (designated as Cu2Mg(111)) intermetallic compound with high-density ordered Cu3-Mg sites. The in situ Raman spectroscopy and density function theory calculations revealed that the Cu3 - δ $_{^{\rm{{\rm \delta} }} }$ --Mg- δ $_{^{\rm{{\rm \delta} }} }$ + active sites allowed to increase *CO surface coverage, decrease reaction energy for *CO-CO coupling, and stabilize *CHCHOH intermediates, thus promoting the ethanol formation pathway. The Cu2Mg(111) catalyst exhibited a high FEC2H5OH of 76.2±4.8 % at 600 mA⋅cm-2, and a peak value of |jC2H5OH| of 720±34 mA⋅cm-2, almost 4 times of that using conventional Cu2Mg with (311) facets, comparable to the best reported values for the CO2-to-ethanol electroreduction.

High-Power CO2-to-C2 Electroreduction on Ga-Spaced, Square-like Cu Sites.

The electrochemical conversion of CO2 into multicarbon (C2) products on Cu-based catalysts is strongly affected by the surface coverage of adsorbed CO (*CO) intermediates and the subsequent C-C coupling. However, the increased *CO coverage inevitably leads to strong *CO repulsion and a reduced C-C coupling efficiency, thus resulting in suboptimal CO2-to-C2 activity and selectivity, especially at ampere-level electrolysis current densities. Herein, we developed an atomically ordered Cu9Ga4 intermetallic compound consisting of Cu square-like binding sites interspaced by catalytically inert Ga atoms. Compared to Cu(100) previously known with a high C2 selectivity, the Ga-spaced, square-like Cu sites presented an elongated Cu-Cu distance that allowed to reduce *CO repulsion and increased *CO coverage simultaneously, thus endowing more efficient C-C coupling to C2 products than Cu(100) and Cu(111). The Cu9Ga4 catalyst exhibited an outstanding CO2-to-C2 electroreduction, with a peak C2 partial current density of 1207 mA cm-2 and a corresponding Faradaic efficiency of 71%. Moreover, the Cu9Ga4 catalyst demonstrated a high-power (∼200 W) electrolysis capability with excellent electrochemical stability.

Promoting Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction to CH4 by Copper Porphyrin with Donor-Acceptor Structures.

Molecular catalysts have been receiving increasingly attention in the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2 RR) with attractive features such as precise catalytic sites and tunable ligands. However, the insufficient activity and low selectivity of deep reduction products restrain the utilization of molecular catalysts in CO2 RR. Herein, a donor-acceptor modified Cu porphyrin (CuTAPP) is developed, in which amino groups are linked to donate electrons toward the central CuN4 site to enhance the CO2 RR activity. The CuTAPP catalyst exhibited an excellent CO2 -to-CH4 electroreduction performance, including a high CH4 partial current density of 290.5 mA cm-2 and a corresponding Faradaic efficiency of 54.8% at -1.63 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode in flow cells. Density functional theory calculations indicated that CuTAPP presented a much lower energy gap in the pathway of producing *CHO than Cu porphyrin without amino group modification. This work suggests a useful strategy of introducing designed donor-acceptor structures into molecular catalysts for enhancing electrochemical CO2 conversion toward deep reduction products.

Over 2 A cm-2 CO2 -to-Ethanol Conversion by Alkali-Metal Cation Induced Copper With Dominant (200) Facets.

The high-rate ethanol electrosynthesis from CO2 is challenging due to the low selectivity and poor activity, which requires the competition with other reduction products and H2 . Here, the electrochemical reconstruction of Cs3 Cu2 Cl5 perovskite to form surface Cl-bonded, low-coordinated Cs modified Cu(200) nanocubes (CuClCs), is demonstrated. Density functional theory calculations reveal that the CuClCs structure possesses low Bader charges and a large coordination capacity; and thus, can promote the CO2 -to-ethanol pathway via stabilizing C-O bond in oxygenate intermediates. The CuClCs catalyst exhibits outstanding partial current densities for producing ethanol (up to 2124 ± 54 mA cm-2 ) as one of the highest reported values in the electrochemical CO2 or CO reduction. This work suggests an attractive strategy with surface alkali-metal cations for ampere-level CO2 -to-ethanol electrosynthesis.

Coupling Value-Added Anodic Reactions with Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction.

Electrocatalytic CO2 reduction features a promising approach to realize carbon neutrality. However, its competitiveness is limited by the sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at anode, which consumes a large portion of energy. Coupling value-added anodic reactions with CO2 electroreduction has been emerging as a promising strategy in recent years to enhance the full-cell energy efficiency and produce valuable chemicals at both cathode and anode of the electrolyzer. This review briefly summarizes recent progresses on the electrocatalytic CO2 reduction, and the economic feasibility of different CO2 electrolysis systems is discussed. Then a comprehensive summary of recent advances in the coupled electrolysis of CO2 and potential value-added anodic reactions is provided, with special focus on the specific cell designs. Finally, current challenges and future opportunities for the coupled electrolysis systems are proposed, which are targeted to facilitate progress in this field and push the CO2 electrolyzers to a more practical level.

Photo-Driven Quasi-Topological Transformation Exposing Highly Active Nitrogen Cation Sites for Enhanced Photocatalytic H2 O2 Production.

Herein, the exposure of highly-active nitrogen cation sites has been accomplished by photo-driven quasi-topological transformation of a 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione-based covalent organic framework (COF), which contributes to hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) synthesis during the 2-electron O2 photoreduction. The exposed nitrogen cation sites with photo-enhanced Lewis acidity not only act as the electron-transfer motor to adjust the inherent charge distribution, powering continuous and stable charge separation, and broadening visible-light adsorption, but also providing a large number of active sites for O2 adsorption. The optimal catalyst shows a high H2 O2 production rate of 11965 µmol g-1 h-1 under visible light irradiation and a remarkable apparent quantum yield of 12.9 % at 400 nm, better than most of the previously reported COF photocatalysts. This work provides new insights for designing photo-switchable nitrogen cation sites as catalytic centers toward efficient solar to chemical energy conversion.

Interfacial Water Tuning by Intermolecular Spacing for Stable CO2 Electroreduction to C2+ Products.

Electroreduction of CO2 to multi-carbon (C2+ ) products is a promising approach for utilization of renewable energy, in which the interfacial water quantity is critical for both the C2+ product selectivity and the stability of Cu-based electrocatalytic sites. Functionalization of long-chain alkyl molecules on a catalyst surface can help to increase its stability, while it also tends to block the transport of water, thus inhibiting the C2+ product formation. Herein, we demonstrate the fine tuning of interfacial water by surface assembly of toluene on Cu nanosheets, allowing for sustained and enriched CO2 supply but retarded water transfer to catalytic surface. Compared to bare Cu with fast cathodic corrosion and long-chain alkyl-modified Cu with main CO product, the toluene assembly on Cu nanosheet surface enabled a high Faradaic efficiency of 78 % for C2+ and a partial current density of 1.81 A cm-2 . The toluene-modified Cu catalyst further exhibited highly stable CO2 -to-C2 H4 conversion of 400 h in a membrane-electrode-assembly electrolyzer, suggesting the attractive feature for both efficient C2+ selectivity and excellent stability.

Promoting CO2 Electroreduction to Multi-Carbon Products by Hydrophobicity-Induced Electro-Kinetic Retardation.

Advancing the performance of the Cu-catalyzed electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2 RR) is crucial for its practical applications. Still, the wettable pristine Cu surface often suffers from low exposure to CO2 , reducing the Faradaic efficiencies (FEs) and current densities for multi-carbon (C2+ ) products. Recent studies have proposed that increasing surface availability for CO2 by cation-exchange ionomers can enhance the C2+ product formation rates. However, due to the rapid formation and consumption of *CO, such promotion in reaction kinetics can shorten the residence of *CO whose adsorption determines C2+ selectivity, and thus the resulting C2+ FEs remain low. Herein, we discover that the electro-kinetic retardation caused by the strong hydrophobicity of quaternary ammonium group-functionalized polynorbornene ionomers can greatly prolong the *CO residence on Cu. This unconventional electro-kinetic effect is demonstrated by the increased Tafel slopes and the decreased sensitivity of *CO coverage change to potentials. As a result, the strongly hydrophobic Cu electrodes exhibit C2+ Faradaic efficiencies of ≈90 % at a partial current density of 223 mA cm-2 , more than twice of bare or hydrophilic Cu surfaces.

Electrocatalytic CO2 Upgrading to Triethanolamine by Bromine-Assisted C2 H4 Oxidation.

The electrocatalytic carbon dioxide (CO2 ) reduction is a promising approach for converting this greenhouse gas into value-added chemicals, while the capability of producing products with longer carbon chains (Cn >3) is limited. Herein, we demonstrate the Br-assisted electrocatalytic oxidation of ethylene (C2 H4 ), a major CO2 electroreduction product, into 2-bromoethanol by electro-generated bromine on metal phthalocyanine catalysts. Due to the preferential formation of Br2 over *O or Cl2 to activate the C=C bond, a high partial current density of producing 2-bromoethanol (46.6 mA⋅cm-2 ) was obtained with 87.2 % Faradaic efficiency. Further coupling with the electrocatalytic nitrite reduction to ammonia at the cathode allowed the production of triethanolamine with six carbon atoms. Moreover, by coupling a CO2 electrolysis cell for in situ C2 H4 generation and a C2 H4 oxidation/nitrite reduction cell, the capability of upgrading of CO2 and nitrite into triethanolamine was demonstrated.

Controllable States and Porosity of Cu-Carbon for CO2 Electroreduction to Hydrocarbons.

The electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2 RR) to value-added chemical products is an effective strategy for both greenhouse effect mitigation and high-density energy storage. However, controllable manipulation of the oxidation state and porous structure of Cu-carbon based catalysts to achieve high selectivity and current density for a particular product remains very challenging. Herein, a strategy derived from Cu-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for the synthesis of controllable oxidation states and porous structure of Cu-carbon (Cu-pC, Cu2 O-pC, and Cu2 O/Cu-pC) is demonstrated. By regulating oxygen partial pressure during the annealing process, the valence state of the Cu and mesoporous structures of surrounding carbon are changed, leads to the different selectivity of products. Cu2 O/CuO-pC with the higher oxidation state exhibits FEC2H4 of 65.12% and a partial current density of -578 mA cm-2 , while the Cu2 O-pC shows the FECH4 over 55% and a partial current density exceeding -438 mA cm-2 . Experimental and theoretical studies indicate that porous carbon-coated Cu2 O structures favor the CH4 pathway and inhibit the hydrogen evolution reaction. This work provides an effective strategy for exploring the influence of the various valence states of Cu and mesoporous carbon structures on the selectivity of CH4 and C2 H4 products in CO2 RR.

Lithium Vacancy-Tuned [CuO4 ] Sites for Selective CO2 Electroreduction to C2+ Products.

Electrochemical CO2 reduction to valuable multi-carbon (C2+ ) products is attractive but with poor selectivity and activity due to the low-efficient CC coupling. Herein, a lithium vacancy-tuned Li2 CuO2 with square-planar [CuO4 ] layers is developed via an electrochemical delithiation strategy. Density functional theory calculations reveal that the lithium vacancies (VLi ) lead to a shorter distance between adjacent [CuO4 ] layers and reduce the coordination number of Li+ around each Cu, featuring with a lower energy barrier for COCO coupling than pristine Li2 CuO2 without VLi . With the VLi percentage of ≈1.6%, the Li2- x CuO2 catalyst exhibits a high Faradaic efficiency of 90.6 ± 7.6% for C2+ at -0.85 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode without iR correction, and an outstanding partial current density of -706 ± 32 mA cm-2 . This work suggests an attractive approach to create controllable alkali metal vacancy-tuned Cu catalytic sites toward C2+ products in electrochemical CO2 reduction.

A Crystalline Partially Fluorinated Triazine Covalent Organic Framework for Efficient Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide.

A partially fluorinated, metal-free, imine-linked two-dimensional triazine covalent organic framework (TF50 -COF) photocatalyst was developed. Fluorine (F)-substituted and nonsubstituted units were integrated in equimolar amounts on the edge aromatic units, where they mediated two-electron O2 photoreduction. F-substitution created an abundance of Lewis acid sites, which regulated the electronic distribution of adjacent carbon atoms and provided highly active sites for O2 adsorption, and widened the visible-light-responsive range of the catalyst, while enhancing charge separation. Varying the proportion of F maximized the interlayer interactions of TF50 -COF, resulting in improved crystallinity with faster carrier transfer and robust photostability. The TF50 -COF catalyst demonstrates high selectivity and stability in O2 photoreduction into H2 O2 , with a high H2 O2 yield rate of 1739 µmol h-1 g-1 and a remarkable apparent quantum efficiency of 5.1 % at 400 nm, exceeding the performance of previously reported nonmetal COF-based photocatalysts.