Household food insecurity and dietary diversity of women of reproductive age among smallholder farming households in northwest Bangladesh.

Despite Bangladesh's remarkable progress in agricultural production over the past few decades, household food and nutrition insecurity persist, especially in rural areas. The nutrition security and dietary diversity are even more critical for women of reproductive age among smallholders. This study examined household food insecurity and dietary diversity of women of reproductive age in the rural areas of northwest Bangladesh. Using cross-sectional data collected from 252 smallholder households, we measured household food insecurity and dietary diversity of women of reproductive age by the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale and the Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women, respectively. Determinants of household food insecurity were examined, and associations between household food insecurity and low dietary diversity were determined. The majority of the households were mildly insecure (51.2%) followed by moderately insecure (27.4%). The households felt anxiety of food insecurity for more than six months a year (Food Security Index = 2.10 out of 4.00). The mean food group consumed by women was 4.63 indicating low dietary diversity and dominance of diets by grains and dark green leafy vegetables. The findings also indicate a significant and positive association between household food insecurity and low dietary diversity of women. Education of household heads, household size, access to information sources, access to credit support, and perceived impacts of climate change on crop production were identified as determinants of household food insecurity. The study recommends that appropriate interventions be formulated to improve the food and nutrition security in the study areas.

Changing food patterns across the seasons in rural Pakistan: analysis of food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake.

This comparative study investigated variations in food patterns across the seasons in rural Pakistan through assessing the changes in food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake. It analyzed the situation using the primary information of 97 and 114 households surveyed in summer and winter respectively. Findings revealed a significant difference of households' food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake across the seasons. In the winter, households' food basket was more diverse, showing 30%, 13%, and 8% rise in food variety, dietary diversity, and caloric intake, respectively, due mainly to the changes in food choices in winter. Rural households preferred to consume items from nutritious food groups (i.e., dried fruits and nuts, oilseeds, and locally preserved foods) during the severe cold weather. However, they did not substitute significantly the items from basic food groups (i.e., cereals, vegetables and legumes, tubers, and dairy products), with those belonging to nutritious groups. Based on findings, it is concluded that food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake fluctuate across the seasons, therefore surveys of dietary patterns and calorie intake in one particular season may not be reliable, and food security status of households may not be generalized on the basis of one season survey.

Factors influencing participation in collective marketing through organic rice farmer groups in northeast Thailand.

Despite the significant roles of farmer groups in collective action for production and marketing of organic paddy, limited literature has studied the farmer-level determinants of participation in collective action in northeast Thailand. This study examined factors associated with participation in collective marketing for three organic rice farmer groups (Nam Om Community Enterprise Network, Na So Farmer Group, and Moral Rice Farmer Group) in Yasothon Province of Thailand, producing organic jasmine rice for export and domestic markets through contract farming. Primary data were collected from 335 farmers and analyzed by descriptive statistics and the two-limit tobit regression method. The descriptive results showed relatively high levels of social, economic, institutional, and environmental benefits arising from the participation in those groups. In particular, environmental benefits were higher than the other types of benefits. The regression analysis found that age and agricultural loan negatively influenced the extent of participation in collective marketing through farmer groups, whereas education, paddy cultivation area size, non-agricultural income, experience in rice farming, experience in organic rice farming, group membership duration, perceived economic benefits, and membership with Na So farmer group were positively associated with the extent of participation. The effect of experience with organic rice farming was relatively small in Na So Farmer Group. The findings suggest that economic benefits from participation in organic farmer groups should be enhanced in order to increase the collective marketing of organic rice produce. Moreover, the government should provide alternative employment opportunities, knowledge-based training, and low-interest credit to support production and collective marketing of organic rice.

Air pollution and its economic impacts at household level: willingness to pay for environmental services in Pakistan.

Air pollution has become a major global problem. Thus, the goal of this study was to find out the economic impacts (treatment cost) of air pollution on households as well as the principal factors inducing an individual's willingness to pay for better air quality. District Faisalabad was purposively selected for sampling, as it is a major industrial hub in Pakistan. The required information was collected from 120 sampled respondents through a structured questionnaire. The ordinary least squares method was used for assessing the impact of various factors on the treatment cost of the most recent episode of ailment related to air pollution. The ordered logit model was used to assess the impacts of factors affecting the willingness to pay for programs aimed at the provision of better environmental services. The results revealed that high air pollution in the urban area resulted in more lost workdays and higher health costs. The findings also showed that people were willing to pay for better air quality in urban areas than in rural areas. Based on the findings, it is suggested that the incentive schemes may be designed for the promotion of cleaner services in rural and urban areas.

Status and determinants of small farming households' food security and role of market access in enhancing food security in rural Pakistan.

In most of the developing countries, lack of resources and little market accessibility are among the major factors that affect small farming household food security. This study aims to investigate the status of small farming households' food security, and its determinants including the role of market accessibility factors in enhancing food security at household level. In addition, this study also determines the households' perception about different kinds of livelihoods risks. This study is based on a household survey of 576 households conducted through face-to-face interviews using structured interviews in Punjab, Pakistan. Food security status is calculated using dietary intake method. The study findings show that one-fourth of the households are food insecure. The study findings reveal that farm households perceive increase in food prices, crop diseases, lack of irrigation water and increase in health expenses as major livelihood risks. Further, the results of logistic regression show that family size, monthly income, food prices, health expenses and debt are main factors influencing the food security status of rural households. Furthermore, the market accessibility factors (road distance and transportation cost) do significantly affect the small farming household food security. The results suggest that local food security can be enhanced by creating off-farm employment opportunities, improved transportation facilities and road infrastructure.

Climate change vulnerability, adaptation and risk perceptions at farm level in Punjab, Pakistan.

Pakistan is among the countries highly exposed and vulnerable to climate change. The country has experienced many severe floods, droughts and storms over the last decades. However, little research has focused on the investigation of vulnerability and adaptation to climate-related risks in Pakistan. Against this backdrop, this article investigates the farm level risk perceptions and different aspects of vulnerability to climate change including sensitivity and adaptive capacity at farm level in Pakistan. We interviewed a total of 450 farming households through structured questionnaires in three districts of Punjab province of Pakistan. This study identified a number of climate-related risks perceived by farm households such as extreme temperature events, insect attacks, animal diseases and crop pests. Limited water availability, high levels of poverty and a weak role of local government in providing proper infrastructure were the factors that make farmers more sensitive to climate-related risks. Uncertainty or reduction in crop and livestock yields; changed cropping calendars and water shortage were the major adverse impacts of climate-related risks reported by farmers in the study districts. Better crop production was reported as the only positive effect. Further, this study identified a number of farm level adaptation methods employed by farm households that include changes in crop variety, crop types, planting dates and input mix, depending upon the nature of the climate-related risks. Lack of resources, limited information, lack of finances and institutional support were some constraints that limit the adaptive capacity of farm households. This study also reveals a positive role of cooperation and negative role of conflict in the adaptation process. The study suggests to address the constraints to adaptation and to improve farm level cooperation through extended outreach and distribution of institutional services, particularly climate-specific farm advisory services.