LinG3D: visualizing the spatio-temporal dynamics of clonal evolution.

BACKGROUND: Cancers are spatially heterogenous, thus their clonal evolution, especially following anti-cancer treatments, depends on where the mutated cells are located within the tumor tissue. For example, cells exposed to different concentrations of drugs, such as cells located near the vessels in contrast to those residing far from the vasculature, can undergo a different evolutionary path. However, classical representations of cell lineage trees do not account for this spatial component of emerging cancer clones. Here, we propose routines to trace spatial and temporal clonal evolution in computer simulations of the tumor evolution models. RESULTS: The LinG3D (Lineage Graphs in 3D) is an open-source collection of routines (in MATLAB, Python, and R) that enables spatio-temporal visualization of clonal evolution in a two-dimensional tumor slice from computer simulations of the tumor evolution models. These routines draw traces of tumor clones in both time and space, and may include a projection of a selected microenvironmental factor, such as the drug or oxygen distribution within the tumor, if such a microenvironmental factor is used in the tumor evolution model. The utility of LinG3D has been demonstrated through examples of simulated tumors with different number of clones and, additionally, in experimental colony growth assay. CONCLUSIONS: This routine package extends the classical lineage trees, that show cellular clone relationships in time, by adding the space component to show the locations of cellular clones within the 2D tumor tissue patch from computer simulations of tumor evolution models.

Quantitative anatomy of the large variant right hepatic vein: A systematic three-dimensional analysis.

Anatomical variations of the right hepatic vein, especially large variant right hepatic veins (≥5 mm), have important clinical implications in liver transplantation and resection. This study aimed to evaluate anatomical variations of the right hepatic vein using quantitative three-dimensional visualization analysis. Computed tomography images of 650 patients were retrospectively analyzed, and three-dimensional visualization was applied using the derived data to analyze large variant right hepatic veins. The proportion of the large variant right hepatic vein was 16.92% (110/650). According to the location and number of the variant right hepatic veins, the configuration of the right hepatic venous system was divided into seven subtypes. The length of the retrohepatic inferior vena cava had a positive correlation with the diameter of the right hepatic vein (rs = 0.266, p = 0.001) and the variant right hepatic veins (rs = 0.211, p = 0.027). The diameter of the right hepatic vein was positively correlated with that of the middle hepatic vein (rs = 0.361, p < 0.001), while it was inversely correlated with that of the variant right hepatic veins (rs = -0.267, p = 0.005). The right hepatic vein diameter was positively correlated with the drainage volume (rs = 0.489, p < 0.001), while the correlation with the variant right hepatic veins drainage volume was negative (rs = -0.460, p < 0.001). The number of the variant right hepatic veins and their relative diameters were positively correlated (p < 0.001). The volume and percentage of the drainage area of the right hepatic vein decreased significantly as the number of the variant right hepatic vein increased (p < 0.001). The findings of this study concerning the variations of the hepatic venous system may be useful for the surgical planning of liver resection or transplantation.

New insights into endolithic palaeocommunity development in mobile hard substrate using CT imaging of bioeroded clasts from the Pliocene (Almería, SE Spain).

Bioeroded carbonate clasts from a Pliocene shallow-marine succession of Almería (SE Spain, Betic Cordillera) were analysed with computed tomography (CT). This revealed the detailed 3D architecture of bioerosion structures hidden within and allowed for their ichnotaxonomic identification (14 ichnospecies of 5 ichnogenera) and quantification. Borings are produced by worms, mostly polychaetes and sipunculids dominated, followed by bivalves and lastly by sponges. The crosscutting relationship between the borings and their preservation characteristics points to a complex colonization history of the clasts with repeated bioerosive episodes interrupted by physical disturbances, including overturning and abrasion of the clasts followed by their recolonization. Our findings facilitated paleoenvironmental interpretation and can be compared to analogous modern-day ecological succession. The sharp dominance of worm borings - early successional species - may be related to frequent, periodic, physical disturbance that possibly prevented the cobble-dwelling macroboring community from being overtaken by sponges - late successional taxa. CT, hand sample and petrographic observations detected, aside from borings, other irregularly shaped pores which are interpreted to be generated by diagenetic processes including dolomitization, silicification and dissolution, representing an intraparticle moldic and moldic enlarged porosity. Boring porosity crosscutting the diagenetically altered grains suggests the later occurrence of bioerosion processes. Irregular shapes ranging from roughly spherical, elongate sub-polyhedral to amoeboid resemble morphologies produced by modern sponges. Moldic pores possibly acted as primary domiciles for boring sponges, which infested, altered and enlarged pre-existing pores as they grew (as happens in the modern), providing an example of how biological and non-biological processes interacted and together influenced endolithic palaeocommunity development.

Three-dimensional visualization of thyroid ultrasound images based on multi-scale features fusion and hierarchical attention.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound three-dimensional visualization, a cutting-edge technology in medical imaging, enhances diagnostic accuracy by providing a more comprehensive and readable portrayal of anatomical structures compared to traditional two-dimensional ultrasound. Crucial to this visualization is the segmentation of multiple targets. However, challenges like noise interference, inaccurate boundaries, and difficulties in segmenting small structures exist in the multi-target segmentation of ultrasound images. This study, using neck ultrasound images, concentrates on researching multi-target segmentation methods for the thyroid and surrounding tissues. METHOD: We improved the Unet++ to propose PA-Unet++ to enhance the multi-target segmentation accuracy of the thyroid and its surrounding tissues by addressing ultrasound noise interference. This involves integrating multi-scale feature information using a pyramid pooling module to facilitate segmentation of structures of various sizes. Additionally, an attention gate mechanism is applied to each decoding layer to progressively highlight target tissues and suppress the impact of background pixels. RESULTS: Video data obtained from 2D ultrasound thyroid serial scans served as the dataset for this paper.4600 images containing 23,000 annotated regions were divided into training and test sets at a ratio of 9:1, the results showed that: compared with the results of U-net++, the Dice of our model increased from 78.78% to 81.88% (+ 3.10%), the mIOU increased from 73.44% to 80.35% (+ 6.91%), and the PA index increased from 92.95% to 94.79% (+ 1.84%). CONCLUSIONS: Accurate segmentation is fundamental for various clinical applications, including disease diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring. This study will have a positive impact on the improvement of 3D visualization capabilities and clinical decision-making and research in the context of ultrasound image.

3D visualization technology for Learning human anatomy among medical students and residents: a meta- and regression analysis.

BACKGROUND: 3D visualization technology applies computers and other devices to create a realistic virtual world for individuals with various sensory experiences such as 3D vision, touch, and smell to gain a more effective understanding of the relationships between real spatial structures and organizations. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of 3D visualization technology in human anatomy teaching/training and explore the potential factors that affect the training effects to better guide the teaching of classroom/laboratory anatomy. METHODS: We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies on teaching human anatomy using 3D visualization technology. We extensively searched three authoritative databases, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase; the main outcomes were the participants' test scores and satisfaction, while the secondary outcomes were time consumption and enjoyment. Heterogeneity by I² was statistically determined because I²> 50%; therefore, a random-effects model was employed, using data processing software such as RevMan, Stata, and VOSviewer to process data, apply standardized mean difference and 95% confidence interval, and subgroup analysis to evaluate test results, and then conduct research through sensitivity analysis and meta-regression analysis. RESULTS: Thirty-nine randomized controlled trials (2,959 participants) were screened and included in this study. The system analysis of the main results showed that compared with other methods, including data from all regions 3D visualization technology moderately improved test scores as well as satisfaction and enjoyment; however, the time that students took to complete the test was not significantly reduced. Meta-regression analysis also showed that regional factorsaffected test scores, whereas other factors had no significant impact. When the literature from China was excluded, the satisfaction and happiness of the 3D virtual-reality group were statistically significant compared to those of the traditional group; however, the test results and time consumption were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: 3D visualization technology is an effective way to improve learners' satisfaction with and enjoyment of human anatomical learning, but it cannot reduce the time required for testers to complete the test. 3D visualization technology may struggle to improve the testers' scores. The literature test results from China are more prone to positive results and affected by regional bias.

Digital Twin Smart City: Integrating IFC and CityGML with Semantic Graph for Advanced 3D City Model Visualization.

The growing interest in building data management, especially the building information model (BIM), has significantly influenced urban management, materials supply chain analysis, documentation, and storage. However, the integration of BIM into 3D GIS tools is becoming more common, showing progress beyond the traditional problem. To address this, this study proposes data transformation methods involving mapping between three domains: industry foundation classes (IFC), city geometry markup language (CityGML), and web ontology framework (OWL)/resource description framework (RDF). Initially, IFC data are converted to CityGML format using the feature manipulation engine (FME) at CityGML standard's levels of detail 4 (LOD4) to enhance BIM data interoperability. Subsequently, CityGML is converted to the OWL/RDF diagram format to validate the proposed BIM conversion process. To ensure integration between BIM and GIS, geometric data and information are visualized through Cesium Ion web services and Unreal Engine. Additionally, an RDF graph is applied to analyze the association between the semantic mapping of the CityGML standard, with Neo4j (a graph database management system) utilized for visualization. The study's results demonstrate that the proposed data transformation methods significantly improve the interoperability and visualization of 3D city models, facilitating better urban management and planning.

Cinematic rendering of non-traumatic thoracic aorta emergencies: a new look at an old problem.

Non-traumatic thoracic aorta emergencies are acute conditions associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. In the emergency setting, timely detection of aortic injury through radiological imaging is crucial for prompt treatment planning and favorable patient outcomes. 3D cinematic rendering (CR), a novel rendering algorithm for computed tomography (CT) image processing, allows for life-like visualization of spatial details and contours of highly complex anatomic structures such as the thoracic aorta and its vessels, generating a photorealistic view that not just adds to diagnostic confidence, but is especially useful for non-radiologists, including surgeons and emergency medicine physicians. In this pictorial review, we demonstrate the utility of CR in the setting of non-traumatic thoracic aorta emergencies through 10 cases that were processed at a standalone 3D CR station at the time of presentation, including its role in diagnosis and management.

Using design thinking to create and implement a 3D digital library of anatomical specimens.

Design thinking (DT) is a five-stage process (empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test) that guides the creation of user-centered solutions to complex problems. DT is in common use outside of science but has rarely been applied to anatomical education. The use of DT in this study identified the need for flexible access to anatomical specimens outside of the anatomy laboratory and guided the creation of a digital library of three-dimensional (3D) anatomical specimens (3D Anatomy Viewer). To test whether the resource was fit for purpose, a mixed-methods student evaluation was undertaken. Student surveys (n = 46) were employed using the system usability scale (SUS) and an unvalidated acceptability questionnaire. These verified that 3D Anatomy Viewer was usable (SUS of 72%) and acceptable (agreement range of 77%-93% on all Likert-type survey statements, Cronbach's alpha = 0.929). Supplementary interviews (n = 5) were analyzed through content analysis and revealed three main themes: (1) a credible online supplementary learning resource; (2) learning anatomy with 3D realism and interactivity; (3) user recommendations for expanding the number of anatomical models, test questions, and gamification elements. These data demonstrate that a DT framework can be successfully applied to anatomical education for creation of a practical learning resource. Anatomy educators should consider employing a DT framework where student-centered solutions to learner needs are required.

[Evaluation of augmented reality technology in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of Augmented reality technology in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy. METHODS: This study was conducted on the undergraduate students in Peking University School of Stomatology who were learning oral and maxillofacial anatomy. The image data were selected according to the experiment content, and the important blood vessels and bone tissue structures, such as upper and lower jaws, neck arteries and veins were reconstructed in 3D(3-dimensional) by digital software to generate experiment models, and the reconstructed models were encrypted and stored in the cloud. The QR (quick response) code corresponding to the 3D model was scanned by a networked mobile device to obtain augmented reality images to assist experimenters in teaching and subjects in recognizing. Augmented reality technology was applied in both the theoretical explanation and cadaveric dissection respectively. Subjects' feedback was collected in the form of a post-class questionnaire to evaluate the effectiveness of augmented reality technology-assisted recognizing. RESULTS: In the study, 83 undergraduate students were included as subjects in this study. Augmented reality technology could be successfully applied in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy. All the subjects could scan the QR code through a connected mobile device to get the 3D anatomy model from the cloud, and zoom in/out/rotate the model on the mobile. Augmented reality technology could provide personalized 3D model, based on learners' needs and abilities. The results of likert scale showed that augmented reality technology was highly recognized by the students (9.19 points), and got high scores in terms of forming a three-dimensional sense and stimulating the enthusiasm for learning (9.01 and 8.85 points respectively). CONCLUSION: Augmented reality technology can realize the three-dimensional visualization of important structures of oral and maxillofacial anatomy and stimulate students' enthusiasm for learning. Besides, it can assist students in building three-dimensional space imagination of the anatomy of oral and maxillofacial area. The application of augmented reality technology achieves favorable effect in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy.

V-NeuroStack: Open-source 3D time stack software for identifying patterns in neuronal data.

Understanding functional correlations between the activities of neuron populations is vital for the analysis of neuronal networks. Analyzing large-scale neuroimaging data obtained from hundreds of neurons simultaneously poses significant visualization challenges. We developed V-NeuroStack, a novel network visualization tool to visualize data obtained using calcium imaging of spontaneous activity of neurons in a mouse brain slice as well as in vivo using two-photon imaging. V-NeuroStack creates 3D time stacks by stacking 2D time frames for a time-series dataset. It provides a web interface to explore and analyze data using both 3D and 2D visualization techniques. Previous attempts to analyze such data have been limited by the tools available to visualize large numbers of correlated activity traces. V-NeuroStack's 3D view is used to explore patterns in dynamic large-scale correlations between neurons over time. The 2D view is used to examine any timestep of interest in greater detail. Furthermore, a dual-line graph provides the ability to explore the raw and first-derivative values of activity from an individual or a functional cluster of neurons. V-NeuroStack can scale to datasets with at least a few thousand temporal snapshots. It can potentially support future advancements in in vitro and in vivo data capturing techniques to bring forth novel hypotheses by allowing unambiguous visualization of massive patterns in neuronal activity data.

Locomotor, ecological and phylogenetic drivers of skeletal proportions in frogs.

Frogs exhibit complex anatomical features of the pelvis, limbs and spine, long assumed to represent specialisations for jumping. Yet frogs employ a wide range of locomotor modes, with several taxa featuring primary locomotor modes other than jumping. Using a combination of techniques (CT imaging and 3D visualization, morphometrics, phylogenetic mapping), this study aims to determine the link between skeletal anatomy and locomotor style, habitat type and phylogenetic history, shedding new light on how functional demands impact morphology. Body and limb measurements for 164 taxa from all the recognised anuran families are extracted from digitally segmented CT scans of whole frog skeletons and analysed using various statistical techniques. We find that the expansion of the sacral diapophyses is the most important variable for predicting locomotor mode, which was more closely correlated with frog morphology than either habitat type or phylogenetic relationships. Predictive analyses suggest that skeletal morphology is a useful indicator of jumping but less so for other locomotor modes, suggesting that there is a wide range of anatomical solutions to performing locomotor styles such as swimming, burrowing or walking.

High resolution imaging of viruses: Scanning probe microscopy and related techniques.

Scanning probe microscopy is a group of measurements that provides 3D visualization of viruses in different environmental conditions including liquids and air. Besides 3D topography it is possible to measure the properties like mechanical rigidity and stability, adhesion, tendency to crystallization, surface charge, etc. Choosing the right substrate and scanning parameters makes it much easier to obtain reliable data. Rational interpretation of experimental results should take into account possible artifacts, proper filtering and data presentation using specially designed software packages. Animal and human virus characterization is in the focus of many intensive studies because of their potential harm to higher organisms. The article focuses on high-resolution visualization of plant viruses. Tobacco mosaic virus, potato viruses X and B and others are not dangerous for the human being and are widely used in different applications such as vaccine preparation, construction of building units in nanotechnology and material science applications, nanoparticle production and delivery, and even metrology. The methods of virus's deposition, visualization, and consequent image processing and interpretation are described in details. Specific examples of viruses imaging are illustrated using the FemtoScan Online software, which has typical and all the necessary built-in functions for constructing three-dimensional images, their processing and analysis. Despite visible progress in visualizing the viruses using probe microscopy, many unresolved problems still remain. At present time the probe microscopy data on viruses is not systemized. There is no descriptive atlas of the images and morphology as revealed by this type of high resolution microscopy. It is worth emphasizing that new virus investigation methods will appear due to the progress of science.

Advanced 3D Visualization and 3D Printing in Radiology.

Since the discovery of X-rays in 1895, medical imaging systems have played a crucial role in medicine by permitting the visualization of internal structures and understanding the function of organ systems. Traditional imaging modalities including Computed Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Ultrasound (US) present fixed two-dimensional (2D) images which are difficult to conceptualize complex anatomy. Advanced volumetric medical imaging allows for three-dimensional (3D) image post-processing and image segmentation to be performed, enabling the creation of 3D volume renderings and enhanced visualization of pertinent anatomic structures in 3D. Furthermore, 3D imaging is used to generate 3D printed models and extended reality (augmented reality and virtual reality) models. A 3D image translates medical imaging information into a visual story rendering complex data and abstract ideas into an easily understood and tangible concept. Clinicians use 3D models to comprehend complex anatomical structures and to plan and guide surgical interventions more precisely. This chapter will review the volumetric radiological techniques that are commonly utilized for advanced 3D visualization. It will also provide examples of 3D printing and extended reality technology applications in radiology and describe the positive impact of advanced radiological image visualization on patient care.

Comparing 1.5 T and 3.0 T MR data for 3D visualization of neurovascular relationships in the posterior fossa.

BACKGROUND: Neurovascular relationships in the posterior fossa are more frequently investigated due to the increasing availability of 3.0 Tesla MRI. For an assessment with 3D visualization, no systematic analyzes are available so far and the question arises as to whether 3.0 Tesla MRI should be given preference over 1.5 Tesla MRI. METHODS: In a prospective study, a series of 25 patients each underwent MRI investigations with 3D-CISS and 3D-TOF at 1.5 and 3.0 Tesla. For both field strengths separately, blood vessel information from the TOF data was fused into the CISS data after segmentation and registration. Four visualizations were created for each field strength, with and without optimization before and after fusion, which were evaluated with a rating system and verified with the intraoperative situation. RESULTS: When only CISS data was used, nerves and vessels were better visualized at 1.5 Tesla. After fusion, flow and pulsation artifacts were reduced in both cases, missing vessel sections were supplemented at 3.0 Tesla and 3D visualization at 1.5 and 3.0 Tesla led to anatomically comparable results. By subsequent manual correction, the remaining artifacts were further eliminated, with the 3D visualization being significantly better at 3.0 Tesla, since the higher field strength led to sharper contours of small vessel and nerve structures. CONCLUSION: 3D visualizations at 1.5 Tesla are sufficiently detailed for planning microvascular decompression and can be used without restriction. Fusion further improves the quality of 3D visualization at 3.0 Tesla and enables an even more accurate delineation of cranial nerves and vessels.

High-Quality 3D Visualization System for Light-Field Microscopy with Fine-Scale Shape Measurement through Accurate 3D Surface Data.

We propose a light-field microscopy display system that provides improved image quality and realistic three-dimensional (3D) measurement information. Our approach acquires both high-resolution two-dimensional (2D) and light-field images of the specimen sequentially. We put forward a matting Laplacian-based depth estimation algorithm to obtain nearly realistic 3D surface data, allowing the calculation of depth data, which is relatively close to the actual surface, and measurement information from the light-field images of specimens. High-reliability area data of the focus measure map and spatial affinity information of the matting Laplacian are used to estimate nearly realistic depths. This process represents a reference value for the light-field microscopy depth range that was not previously available. A 3D model is regenerated by combining the depth data and the high-resolution 2D image. The element image array is rendered through a simplified direction-reversal calculation method, which depends on user interaction from the 3D model and is displayed on the 3D display device. We confirm that the proposed system increases the accuracy of depth estimation and measurement and improves the quality of visualization and 3D display images.

3D Multi-Modality Medical Imaging: Combining Anatomical and Infrared Thermal Images for 3D Reconstruction.

Medical thermography provides an overview of the human body with two-dimensional (2D) information that assists the identification of temperature changes, based on the analysis of surface distribution. However, this approach lacks spatial depth information, which can be enhanced by adding multiple images or three-dimensional (3D) systems. Therefore, the methodology applied for this paper generates a 3D point cloud (from thermal infrared images), a 3D geometry model (from CT images), and the segmented inner anatomical structures. Thus, the following computational processing was employed: Structure from Motion (SfM), image registration, and alignment (affine transformation) between the 3D models obtained to combine and unify them. This paper presents the 3D reconstruction and visualization of the respective geometry of the neck/bust and inner anatomical structures (thyroid, trachea, veins, and arteries). Additionally, it shows the whole 3D thermal geometry in different anatomical sections (i.e., coronal, sagittal, and axial), allowing it to be further examined by a medical team, improving pathological assessments. The generation of 3D thermal anatomy models allows for a combined visualization, i.e., functional and anatomical images of the neck region, achieving encouraging results. These 3D models bring correlation of the inner and outer regions, which could improve biomedical applications and future diagnosis with such a methodology.

3D Visualization, Skeletonization and Branching Analysis of Blood Vessels in Angiogenesis.

Angiogenesis is the process of new blood vessels growing from existing vasculature. Visualizing them as a three-dimensional (3D) model is a challenging, yet relevant, task as it would be of great help to researchers, pathologists, and medical doctors. A branching analysis on the 3D model would further facilitate research and diagnostic purposes. In this paper, a pipeline of vision algorithms is elaborated to visualize and analyze blood vessels in 3D from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) granulation tissue sections with two different staining methods. First, a U-net neural network is used to segment blood vessels from the tissues. Second, image registration is used to align the consecutive images. Coarse registration using an image-intensity optimization technique, followed by finetuning using a neural network based on Spatial Transformers, results in an excellent alignment of images. Lastly, the corresponding segmented masks depicting the blood vessels are aligned and interpolated using the results of the image registration, resulting in a visualized 3D model. Additionally, a skeletonization algorithm is used to analyze the branching characteristics of the 3D vascular model. In summary, computer vision and deep learning is used to reconstruct, visualize and analyze a 3D vascular model from a set of parallel tissue samples. Our technique opens innovative perspectives in the pathophysiological understanding of vascular morphogenesis under different pathophysiological conditions and its potential diagnostic role.

Extensive internal limiting membrane peeling for proliferative vitreoretinopathy.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe the anatomical outcomes of Brilliant Blue G (BBG)-assisted extensive internal limiting membrane peeling for proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) under three-dimensional (3D) visualization. METHODS: This study constitutes a retrospective case series conducted in a private retina practice, of 14 consecutive patients (14 eyes) with rhegmatogenous retinal detachment complicated by PVR who underwent pars plana vitrectomy between January 2019 and January 2020. The internal limiting membrane (ILM) was selectively stained with BBG, and perspectives were enhanced with a 3D visualization system. We peeled off the ILM beyond the vascular arcades up to the periphery. The main outcome was anatomical success, defined as persistent retinal reattachment after removal of the silicone oil tamponade. RESULTS: Anatomic success was achieved with a single surgery in 11 of 14 (78.6%) eyes, and eventual success was achieved in all eyes. The mean patient follow-up time was 12.3 months (range, 7-16 months). The mean preoperative best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 2.93 ± 0.79 logMAR which improved to 1.75 + 0.91 at the last follow-up. CONCLUSION: Extensive ILM peeling allowed the creation of a cleavage plane underlying the PVR membranes that facilitated its complete removal, thereby achieving anatomically reattached retina and reducing the risk of recurrence of retinal detachment. The long-term effects of this technique need further research.

[VITOM 3D exoscopic system compared to microsurgical technique in spinal surgery]. / Rezul'taty ispol'zovaniya 3D-ekzoskopii VITOM v sravnenii s mikrokhirurgicheskoi tekhnikoi v spinal'noi khirurgii.

3D exoscopy based on Video Telescope Operating Monitor (VITOM) technology provides good visualization quality and portability. There are few data on comparison of extracorporeal telescoping with microsurgical techniques in spinal surgery. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of VITOM 3D exoscopy and microsurgical techniques in spinal surgery. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective study included 80 patients (54 men and 26 women). Two groups were distinguished: group 1 (ES, n=40) - VITOM 3D exoscopy, group 2 (SM, n=40) - Pentero 900 surgical microscope. We analyzed surgery time, postoperative rehabilitation, hospital-stay and complications. ES and microsurgical technique were compared using the questionnaire by Takahashi S. and rapid upper limb assessment (RULA). RESULTS: Conventional microsurgical technique was characterized by less surgery time (p<0.05) and morbidity (p=0.02). Postoperative rehabilitation and hospital-stay were similar (p=0.26 and p=0.39, respectively). Image quality in ES was comparable to microsurgical technique in shallow accesses and manipulations perpendicular to skin incision. Availability of neurosurgical instruments at different depths of the wound channel was comparable in both groups. The limitation of ES was length of skin incision, depth of the wound and its visualization at certain angle. These features required expansion of surgical approach or conversion of intervention. In general, surgeons rated intraoperative posture comfort as comparable in both groups that was consistent with the RULA scale. CONCLUSION: VITOM 3D exoscopy is an alternative to traditional microscopy and more ergonomically beneficial in spinal surgery in case of manipulations perpendicular to skin incision and shallow wide accesses. There are several important limitations of this device including difficult manipulations in narrow deep wounds and visualization under certain angle.

2D and 3D visualizations of archosaur jaw muscle mechanics, ontogeny and phylogeny using ternary diagrams and 3D modeling.

Comparing patterns of performance and kinematics across behavior, development and phylogeny is crucial to understand the evolution of complex musculoskeletal systems such as the feeding apparatus. However, conveying 3D spatial data of muscle orientation throughout a feeding cycle, ontogenetic pathway or phylogenetic lineage is essential to understanding the function and evolution of the skull in vertebrates. Here, we detail the use of ternary plots for displaying and comparing the 3D orientation of muscle data. First, we illustrate changes in 3D jaw muscle resultants during jaw closing taxa the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Second, we show changes in 3D muscle resultants of jaw muscles across an ontogenetic series of alligators. Third, we compare 3D resultants of jaw muscles of avian-line dinosaurs, including extant (Struthio camelus, Gallus gallus, Psittacus erithacus) and extinct (Tyrannosaurus rex) species to outline the reorganization of jaw muscles that occurred along the line to modern birds. Finally, we compare 3D resultants of jaw muscles of the hard-biting species in our sample (A. mississippiensis, T. rex, P. erithacus) to illustrate how disparate jaw muscle resultants are employed in convergent behaviors in archosaurs. Our findings show that these visualizations of 3D components of jaw muscles are immensely helpful towards identifying patterns of cranial performance, growth and diversity. These tools will prove useful for testing other hypotheses in functional morphology, comparative biomechanics, ecomorphology and organismal evolution.