Reptile responses to fire across the western Mediterranean Basin.

Effects of anthropogenic activities, including climate change, are modifying fire regimes, and the dynamic nature of these modifications requires identification of general patterns of organisms' responses to fire. This is a challenging task because of the high complexity of factors involved (including climate, geography, land use, and species-specific ecology). We aimed to describe the responses of the reptile community to fire across a range of environmental and fire-history conditions in the western Mediterranean Basin. We sampled 8 sites that spanned 4 Mediterranean countries. We recorded 6064 reptile sightings of 36 species in 1620 transects and modeled 3 community metrics (total number of individuals, species richness, and Shannon diversity) as responses to environmental and fire-history variables. Reptile community composition was also analyzed. Habitat type (natural vs. afforestation), fire age class (time since the last fire), rainfall, and temperature were important factors in explaining these metrics. The total number of individuals varied according to fire age class, reaching a peak at 15-40 years after the last fire. Species richness and Shannon diversity were more stable during postfire years. The 3 community metrics were higher under postfire conditions than in unburned forest plots. This pattern was particularly prevalent in afforested plots, indicating that the negative effect of fire on reptiles was lower than the negative effect of afforestation. Community composition varied by fire age class, indicating the existence of early- and late-successional species (xeric and saxicolous vs. mesic reptiles, respectively). Species richness was 46% higher in areas with a single fire age class relative to those with a mixture of fire age classes, which indicates pyrodiverse landscapes promoted reptile diversity. An expected shift to more frequent fires will bias fire age distribution toward a predominance of early stages, and this will be harmful to reptile communities.

Respuestas de reptiles al fuego en la Cuenca Mediterránea occidental Resumen Los efectos de actividades antropogénicas, incluyendo el cambio climático, están modificando los regímenes de fuego, y la naturaleza dinámica de estas modificaciones requiere la identificación de patrones generales de las respuestas de los organismos al fuego. Esta es una tarea desafiante debido a la gran complejidad de los factores involucrados (incluyendo clima, geografía, uso de suelo y la ecología de cada especie). Nuestro objetivo fue describir las respuestas de la comunidad de reptiles al fuego bajo diversas condiciones ambientales e historias de fuego en la Cuenca Mediterránea occidental. Muestreamos ocho sitios en cuatro países mediterráneos. Registramos 6064 avistamientos de reptiles de 36 especies en 1620 transectos y modelamos tres métricas comunitarias (número total de individuos, riqueza de especies y diversidad de Shannon) como respuestas a las variables ambientales y de historia de fuego. También analizamos la composición de la comunidad de reptiles. El tipo de hábitat (natural versus forestación), la clase de edad del fuego (tiempo transcurrido desde el último incendio), la precipitación pluvial y la temperatura fueron factores importantes en la explicación de estas métricas. El número total de individuos varió de acuerdo con la clase de edad del fuego, alcanzando un pico a los 15­40 años después del último incendio. La riqueza de especies y la diversidad de Shannon fueron más estables durante los años posteriores a incendios. Las tres métricas de la comunidad fueron más altas bajo condiciones post incendio que en las parcelas sin historial de fuego. Este patrón fue particularmente prevalente en parcelas forestadas, lo cual indica que el efecto negativo del fuego sobre los reptiles fue menor que el efecto negativo de la forestación. La composición de la comunidad varió por clase de edad del fuego, indicando la existencia de especies sucesionales tempranas y tardías (reptiles xéricos y saxícolas, respectivamente). La riqueza de especie fue 46% mas alta en áreas con una sola clase de edad del fuego que en aquellas con una mezcla de clases de edad del fuego, lo cual indica que los paisajes pirodiversos promovieron la diversidad de reptiles. Un cambio esperado hacia incendios más frecuentes sesgará la distribución de la edad del fuego hacia una predominancia de etapas tempranas, y esto será perjudicial para las comunidades de reptiles.

Age trajectories in extra-pair siring success suggest an effect of maturation or early-life experience.

Across birds, male age is the most consistent predictor of extra-pair siring success, yet little is known about age effects on paternity over the lifetime of individuals. Here, we use data from a 13-year study of a population of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) to investigate how extra-pair siring success changes with age within individuals. Our results indicate that extra-pair siring success does not continuously increase with male age. Instead, siring success was related to male age in a threshold fashion, whereby yearling males were less likely to gain paternity than older males. This effect was independent of the age of the social partner, but influenced by the age of the extra-pair female: success of yearlings at siring extra-pair young (EPY) with older females was even lower. Among males that sired at least one EPY, the number of extra-pair mates and the proportion of EPY sired were unrelated to male age. We found no evidence for an influence of selective disappearance on extra-pair reproduction. Senescence, if anything, only occurs at ages blue tits rarely reach. A literature review indicates that an effect of male age on extra-pair siring success may be limited to the switch from yearling to older in many species. Thus, the generally observed age effect on male extra-pair siring success may be linked to age class rather than continuous ageing. This suggests that lack of experience or not fully completed maturation are important drivers of age patterns in extra-pair paternity.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use of Emergency Departments in Italy.

Background: During 2020, COVID-19 had a diversified distribution in Italy, the first nation in Europe to experience the outbreak of the epidemic. This was linked to geographical differences in population density and distribution of healthcare facilities, including Emergency Departments (EDs). This study aims to assess the impact of the pandemic on ED utilization in 2020 across different subpopulations and geographical locations in Italy. Methods: We used anonymized data from a survey conducted by the Italian National Institute of Statistics on 25,000 families to analyze the yearly rate of people who used EDs from 2015 to 2020. The rate of persons who accessed ED services in 2020 per 1,000 population was compared with those of the previous non-pandemic years. Results: The number of people accessing EDs in 2020 was 32.3% lower, although this reduction was not uniform across the 21 regions / autonomous provinces. People aged 0-14 years experienced the highest reduction in ED visits. In 2020, low educational level people exhibited a steeper reduction in the use of EDs. Conclusions: This study shows a significant drop in EDs use especially by children; the population section mostly affected by the effects of the pandemic. This study also confirms that education and socio-economic status are important determinants of ED use. The heterogeneous reduction in ED use across the regions of Italy highlights the need to further investigate the impact of this pattern on the health of the population, as well as to define adequate preparedness strategies to face future emergencies.

Estimated effectiveness of school closure and voluntary event cancellation as COVID-19 countermeasures in Japan.

BACKGROUND: As countermeasures against the COVID-19 outbreak, sports and entertainment events were canceled (VEC) in Japan for two weeks from 26 February through 13 March. Moreover, most schools were closed (SC). OBJECTIVE: For this study, we estimated the basic reproduction number (R0) and SC and VEC effects. METHOD: After constructing a susceptible-infected-recovered model with three age classes, we used data of symptomatic patients in Japan for 14 January through 24 March. The SC and VEC effects were incorporated into the model through changes in contact patterns and contact frequencies among age classes. RESULTS: Results suggest R0 as 2.56, with 95% CI of [2.51, 2.96] before SC and VEC. The respective effects of SC and VEC were estimated as 0.4 (95% CI [0.3, 0.5]) and 0.5 (95% CI [0.3, 0.7]). CONCLUSION: The estimated R0 is similar to those found from other studies of China and Japan. Significant reduction of contact frequency has been achieved by SC and VEC. Nevertheless, its magnitude was insufficient to contain the outbreak.

Age-specific accumulation of toxic metal(loid)s in northern pike (Esox lucius) juveniles.

Northern pike specimens of 0+, 1+, and 2+ age classes were collected in June 2013 from the Vizelj channel near Belgrade (Serbia). Inductively coupled plasma optical spectrometry (ICP-OES) and atomic absorption spectrometer SpectrAA 220 were used for analyzing concentrations of As, Cr, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Sr, Pb, and Zn, as well as Hg in muscle, gills, and liver. Metal pollution index (MPI) was calculated. Concentrations of As, Cd, Co, and Pb were below the limit of detection. Concentrations of Cu, Hg, and Zn in muscle did not exceed the maximum allowed concentrations. The gills were tissue which was most affected by pollution. The highest concentrations of Fe in muscle, Cr and Fe in gills, and Hg, Sr, and Zn in liver were recorded in 0+ individuals, as well as Zn in gills of 2+ individuals. On contrary, the lowest concentrations were recorded for Zn in gills of 0+ individuals, Hg in gills of 1+ individuals, and Fe in muscle, Cr and Sr in gills, and Zn in liver of 2+ individuals. Regarding age classes, 2+ juveniles had the highest MPI values for all tissues. Correlations between the metal(loid) accumulation and fish condition were not significant, as well as between fish length and weight and Cu and Hg in muscle, Cu, Hg, and Sr in gills, and Cu, Cr, and Fe in liver. Results indicated that young individuals were more sensitive to pollution, but older fish showed higher overall bioaccumulation of toxic elements analyzed in this study.

Diffusion approximation for an age-class-structured population under viability and fertility selection with application to fixation probability of an advantageous mutant.

In this paper, we ascertain the validity of a diffusion approximation for the frequencies of different types under recurrent mutation and frequency-dependent viability and fertility selection in a haploid population with a fixed age-class structure in the limit of a large population size. The approximation is used to study, and explain in terms of selection coefficients, reproductive values and population-structure coefficients, the differences in the effects of viability versus fertility selection on the fixation probability of an advantageous mutant.

Climate Effects on Growth, Body Condition, and Survival Depend on the Genetic Characteristics of the Population.

Climatic change is expected to affect individual life histories and population dynamics, potentially increasing vulnerability to extinction. The importance of genetic diversity has been highlighted for adaptation and population persistence. However, whether responses of life-history traits to a given environmental condition depend on the genetic characteristics of a population remains elusive. Here we tested this hypothesis in the lizard Zootoca vivipara by simultaneously manipulating habitat humidity, a major climatic predictor of Zootoca's distribution, and adult male color morph frequency, a trait with genome-wide linkage. Interactive effects of humidity and morph frequency had immediate effects on growth and body condition of juveniles and yearlings, as well as on adult survival, and delayed effects on offspring size. In yearlings, higher humidity led to larger female body size and lower humidity led to higher male compared to female survival. In juveniles and yearlings, some treatment effects were compensated over time. The results show that individual responses to environmental conditions depend on the population's color morph frequency, age class, and sex and that these affect intra- and inter-age class competition. Moreover, humidity affected the competitive environment rather than imposing trait-based selection on specific color morphs. This indicates that species' responses to changing environments (e.g., to climate change) are highly complex and difficult to accurately reconstruct and predict without information on the genetic characteristics and demographic structure of populations.

Yield model and yield table construction in Albizia (Albizia lebbeck (L.) under the western agro-climatic zone of Tamil Nadu, Southern India.

The woody legume, Albizia lebbeck, is native to tropical Asia, Africa, and Northern Australia. Owing to its multi-utility, it is widely planted as block plantation and in boundary across community lands. A field study was conducted by measuring the biometric value of trees, viz., height and diameter at every 2-m height using a tree telescope. Besides biometric attributes, age was assessed in order to correlate the age-wise yield. The study was carried out in the western agro-climatic zone of Tamil Nadu in different age classes of trees, viz., 1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years, 21-25 years, 26-30 years, and 31-35 years. The uniqueness of the present study is that the yield model construction for Albizia was done for standard stem timber (Volume at diameter 20 cm over bark) and standard stem small wood (Volume between diameter limits of 20 cm and 5 cm both measured over bark). After computing the data and subjecting for multiple linear regression analysis, the model was constructed, so as to develop yield table accurately for Albizia without the help of form factor. The study result developed two exclusive yield models; namely, the standard stem timber yield model for Albizia was Y = (-1.212) + (-0.012*age) + (6.506*diameter) and the standard model for stem small wood was Y = (-0.945) + (-0.045*age) + (2.769*diameter) + (0.262*no. of branches). The prominence of the present study is that yield table computation for Albizia is possible accurately without destructive analysis and the cumbersome process of developing form factor.

Meat Fatty Acid Composition of Wild Boars Hunted in Romania in Relationship to Gender and Age-Class.

The present study evaluates the influence of gender and age-class on the carcass traits, meat chemical composition, and fatty acid profiles of randomly hunt-harvested wild boars from Romania's Frasin District hunting area, which is an important part of the stock density management strategy. Only 76 wild boars were chosen to participate in the experimental design from a total of 94 wild boars hunted over seven winter seasons, based on two main criteria: right carcass part intact and animal health status (suitable for human consumption) as determined by the veterinary health notice issued by the Food Safety Authority, with all wild boars being evaluated before slaughtering. After sanitary inspection and within the first 24 h postmortem, meat samples were taken in duplicate from the right side of wild boar carcasses (m. Biceps femoris). The aim of this study was to compare the carcass characteristics, chemical composition, and fatty acid profile of wild boar Biceps femoris muscle obtained from the right side of carcasses, as well as the effects of gender, age-class, and their interaction on these traits, in a context where venison is frequently regarded as organic food by consumers due to the natural habitat in which wild animals live. The age of the animals had an effect on the postmortem undressed warm and cold carcass weights (p ≤ 0.05). Considering the proximal chemical composition, only the intramuscular fat (IMF) content was higher in adult meat samples compared to young animals. C18:1 n-9 was the most abundant fatty acid in wild boar meat, followed by C16:0, C18:2 n-6, and C18:0. For IMF content, gender, age class, and their interaction influenced mainly MUFA fatty acids, in particular C16:1 n-9, C20:1 n-9 and C22:1 n-9, and also PUFA fatty acids C18:3 n-6, C20:3 n-3, C20:4 n-6, C20:5 n-3, C22:4 n-6, and C22:5 n-6. The appropriate amounts of individual fatty acids in the muscles of the wild boars translate into a ratio of P/S acids that promotes health as a bio-alternative resource of meat.

Intrapopulation differences in polar bear movement and step selection patterns.

BACKGROUND: The spatial ecology of individuals often varies within a population or species. Identifying how individuals in different classes interact with their environment can lead to a better understanding of population responses to human activities and environmental change and improve population estimates. Most inferences about polar bear (Ursus maritimus) spatial ecology are based on data from adult females due to morphological constraints on applying satellite radio collars to other classes of bears. Recent studies, however, have provided limited movement data for adult males and sub-adults of both sexes using ear-mounted and glue-on tags. We evaluated class-specific movements and step selection patterns for polar bears in the Chukchi Sea subpopulation during spring. METHODS: We developed hierarchical Bayesian models to evaluate polar bear movement (i.e., step length and directional persistence) and step selection at the scale of 4-day step lengths. We assessed differences in movement and step selection parameters among the three classes of polar bears (i.e., adult males, sub-adults, and adult females without cubs-of-the-year). RESULTS: Adult males had larger step lengths and less directed movements than adult females. Sub-adult movement parameters did not differ from the other classes but point estimates were most similar to adult females. We did not detect differences among polar bear classes in step selection parameters and parameter estimates were consistent with previous studies. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the use of estimated step selection patterns from adult females as a proxy for other classes of polar bears during spring. Conversely, movement analyses indicated that using data from adult females as a proxy for the movements of adult males is likely inappropriate. We recommend that researchers consider whether it is valid to extend inference derived from adult female movements to other classes, based on the questions being asked and the spatial and temporal scope of the data. Because our data were specific to spring, these findings highlight the need to evaluate differences in movement and step selection during other periods of the year, for which data from ear-mounted and glue-on tags are currently lacking.

ESBL/AmpC-Producing Escherichia coli in Wild Boar: Epidemiology and Risk Factors.

The complex health problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) involves many host species, numerous bacteria and several routes of transmission. Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase and AmpC (ESBL/AmpC)-producing Escherichia coli are among the most important strains. Moreover, wildlife hosts are of interest as they are likely antibiotics free and are assumed as environmental indicators of AMR contamination. Particularly, wild boar (Sus scrofa) deserves attention because of its increased population densities, with consequent health risks at the wildlife-domestic-human interface, and the limited data available on AMR. Here, 1504 wild boar fecal samples were microbiologically and molecularly analyzed to investigate ESBL/AmpC-producing E. coli and, through generalized linear models, the effects of host-related factors and of human population density on their spread. A prevalence of 15.96% of ESBL/AmpC-producing E. coli, supported by blaCTX-M (12.3%), blaTEM (6.98%), blaCMY (0.86%) and blaSHV (0.47%) gene detection, emerged. Young animals were more colonized by ESBL/AmpC strains than older subjects, as observed in domestic animals. Increased human population density leads to increased blaTEM prevalence in wild boar, suggesting that spatial overlap may favor this transmission. Our results show a high level of AMR contamination in the study area that should be further investigated. However, a role of wild boar as a maintenance host of AMR strains emerged.

Direction and magnitude of natural selection on body size differ among age-classes of seaward-migrating Pacific salmon.

Due to the mediating role of body size in determining fitness, the "bigger-is-better" hypothesis still pervades evolutionary ecology despite evidence that natural selection on phenotypic traits varies in time and space. For Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus), most individual studies quantify selection across a narrow range of sizes and ages; therefore, uncertainties remain concerning how selection on size may differ among diverse life histories. Here, we quantify the direction and magnitude of natural selection on body size among age-classes of multiple marine cohorts of O. nerka (sockeye salmon). Across four cohorts of seaward migrants, we calculated standardized selection differentials by comparing observed size distributions of out-migrating juvenile salmon to back-calculated smolt length from the scales of surviving, returning adults. Results reveal the magnitude of selection on size was very strong (>90th percentile compared to a database of 3,759 linear selection differentials) and consistent among years. However, the direction of selection on size consistently varied among age-classes. Selection was positive for fish migrating to sea after two years in freshwater (age 2) and in their first year of life (age 0), but negative for fish migrating after 1 year in freshwater (age 1). The absolute magnitude of selection was negatively correlated to mean ocean-entry timing, which may underpin negative selection favoring small age-1 fish, given associations between size and timing of seaward migration. Collectively, these results indicate that "bigger is not always better" in terms of survival and emphasize trade-offs that may exist between fitness components for organisms with similarly diverse migratory life histories.

Biological and anthropogenic predictors of metal concentration in the Eurasian otter, a sentinel of freshwater ecosystems.

Toxic metals have been linked to a range of adverse health effects in freshwater organisms. However, for higher vertebrates, there is little understanding of the large-scale drivers of exposure. We quantified toxic metal/semi-metal concentrations in a sentinel freshwater top predator, the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), across England and Wales, and determined how this varied with key natural and anthropogenic factors. We related liver concentrations in 278 otters that died between 2006 and 2017 to habitat biogeochemistry, proximity to point source contamination and to biological characteristics (length, sex, condition). Evidence for any positive association with putative anthropogenic sources (mining, human population, known discharges) was weak or lacking in nearly all cases, with the exception of a positive association between lead and human population density. Despite concerns that burgeoning use of nanosilver in consumer products might increase silver concentrations in waste waters, there was no increase over time. Spatial variation in soil/sediment pH, precipitation, and soil calcium oxide are indicated as significant predictors of metal concentrations in otters (higher cadmium and silver in areas with lower pH and higher rainfall, and higher chromium and lead in areas of lower calcium oxide). Liver chromium and nickel concentrations declined significantly over time (Cr 0.030 ± 1.2 to 0.015 ± 1.3 µg/g dry weight, Ni 0.0038 ± 1.2 to 0.00068 ± 1.5 µg/g, between 2006-2009 and 2014-2017), but other metals showed no temporal change. Biotic associations were important, with age related accumulation indicated for mercury and cadmium (as well as interactions with body condition). Our results suggest that larger-scale geochemical and hydrological processes are important in determining metal exposure in otters, and we provide an indication of risk factors that may be of relevance for freshwater vertebrates in other countries with well-developed water pollution management.

Forest characteristics and population structure of Glyptostrobus pensilis, a globally endangered relict species of southeastern China.

The Chinese water pine Glyptostrobus pensilis is the sole surviving species of the genus Glyptostrobus. It is endemic to southern China, central Vietnam, and eastern Laos, and today it is nearly extinct in the wild. Forest community characteristics and population structure of G. pensilis in China have remained unknown up to now. We investigated six swamp forest stands and analyzed their forest community characteristics (i.e. vertical stratification, species composition, and diversity) and population structure, including the frequency distribution of DBH (diameter at breast height) and age-classes as found in Fujian Province, southeastern China. The vertical stratifications of all the forest stands were rather simple. The remaining wild specimens ranged from roughly 15 to some 357 years for an average of ca. 85 years, with only a few individuals less than 20 years old. Compared with the stands and populations of G. pensilis in Vietnam, the taxonomic compositions of the stands in the two regions were different, except for the dominant species-G. pensilis. The Shannon-Wiener index showed the overstory of each stand had much lower diversity (0.26 on average) in Fujian Province than that (1.97 on average) in Vietnam, whereas the diversity indices were about the same (around 2.41) for the understories in the two regions. Furthermore, we discovered 18 G. pensilis seedlings at the study sites in Fujian Province. This discovery demonstrates that G. pensilis regeneration is extremely poor and its populations are declining, although these populations are relatively healthier than those in Vietnam.

Natural Selection and Spatial Cognition in Wild Food-Caching Mountain Chickadees.

Understanding how differences in cognition evolve is one of the critical goals in cognitive ecology [1-5]. In food-caching species that rely on memory to recover caches, enhanced spatial cognition has been hypothesized to evolve via natural selection [2, 6-8], but there has been no direct evidence of natural selection acting on spatial memory. Food-caching mountain chickadees living at harsher, higher elevations, with greater reliance on cached food have better spatial learning abilities and larger hippocampi containing more and larger neurons compared to birds from milder, lower elevations [9, 10]. Here, we tested for natural selection on spatial cognition in wild food-caching mountain chickadees at high elevations and documented the following: (1) compared to first-year juveniles, adults showed significantly better performance on two spatial cognitive tasks-spatial learning and memory and a consecutive reversal learning task; (2) cognitive performance in both spatial learning and reversal learning tasks was not significantly different between years in the same chickadees tested in their first year of life and after surviving to their second winter; and (3) cognitive performance in the spatial learning task was significantly better among the first-year juveniles that survived to their second winter compared to the subset of juveniles that did not survive. Taken together, our results provide evidence for natural selection on spatial cognition in a food-caching species living in harsh environments and suggest that natural selection associated with local environmental conditions might be generating intraspecific differences in cognitive abilities. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Ecology of the growth of Anolis nebulosus (Squamata: Dactyloidae) in a seasonal tropical environment in the Chamela region, Jalisco, Mexico.

Juvenile growth rates are thought to be restricted by available food resources. In animals that grow throughout the year, such as tropical lizards, growth is therefore predicted to be faster during the rainy season. We test this prediction using a population of Anolis nebulosusby describing the growth trajectories of both sexes using nonlinear regression models, and we then correlate the growth rates of individuals with food available in the environment, precipitation, and temperature. The Von Bertalanffy model fits the growth rates of the females better, while the logistic-by-length model fits the males better. According to both models, the males grew faster than females, reaching slightly smaller sizes at adulthood. Males reached sexual maturity when 35 mm long, at an age of seven months, and females matured at 37 mm (SVL), taking nine months to reach this size. In 1989, juvenile males and females grew more in both seasons (rainy and dry) than adults; for 1990, there were no differences by season or between age classes. These results are interesting since in the 1989 and 1990 rainy seasons, practically the same orders of prey and the greatest abundance of prey available in the environment were registered. A possible explanation could be that predation was more intense in 1990 than in 1989. There is little evidence that food, temperature, and humidity affect growth rates of A. nebulosus, refuting our predictions. This is mainly due to the low variation in growth observed in 1990. Therefore we think that the growth of this species reflects a complex combination of ecological and genetic factors.

Can concentrations of steroid hormones in brown bear hair reveal age class?

Although combining genetic and endocrine data from non-invasively collected hair samples has potential to improve the conservation of threatened mammals, few studies have evaluated this opportunity. In this study, we determined if steroid hormone (testosterone, progesterone, estradiol and cortisol) concentration profiles in 169 hair samples collected from free-ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos) could be used to accurately discriminate between immature and adult bears within each sex. Because hair samples were acquired opportunistically, we also needed to establish if interactions between hormones and several non-hormone factors (ordinal day, year, contact method, study area) were associated with age class. For each sex, we first compared a suite of candidate models by Akaike Information Criteria model selection, using different adult-age thresholds (3, 4 and 5 years), to determine the most supported adult age. Because hair hormone levels better reflect the endocrine state at an earlier time, possibly during the previous year, then at the time of sampling, we re-analysed the data, excluding the records for bears at the adult-age threshold, to establish if classification accuracy improved. For both sexes, candidate models were most supported based on a 3-year-old adult-age threshold. Classification accuracy did not improve with the 3-year-old bear data excluded. Male age class was predicted with a high degree of accuracy (88.4%) based on the concomitant concentrations of all four hormones. Female age class was predicted with less accuracy (77.1%) based only on testosterone and cortisol. Accuracy was reduced for females, primarily because we had poor success in correctly classifying immature bears (60%) whereas classification success for adult females was similar to that for males (84.5%). Given the small and unbalanced sample used in this study, our findings should be viewed as preliminary, but they should also provide a basis for more comprehensive future studies.

Large-scale assessment of myxomatosis prevalence in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 60years after first outbreak in Spain.

Myxomatosis is a viral disease that affects European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) worldwide. In Spain, populations of wild rabbits drastically decreased in the 1950s after the first outbreak of myxomatosis. Since that first appearance, it seems to be an annual epizootic in Spain with periodic outbreaks, predominantly in summer and autumn. Taking into account rabbit population structure, abundance, and genetic lineage, this paper attempts to make a large-scale characterization of myxomatosis seroprevalence based on the immune status of 29 rabbit populations distributed throughout Spain, where O. cuniculus cuniculus and O. c. algirus, the two known rabbit subspecies, naturally inhabit. A total of 654 samples were collected between 2003 and 2009, and seroprevalence of antibodies against Myxoma virus (MYXV) was determined. Overall, our results revealed that 53% of the rabbit samples were positive to antibodies against MYXV. Newborn and juvenile rabbits were the most susceptible animals to the virus, with 19% and 16% seropositivity for newborn and juveniles, respectively, while adult rabbits were the most protected, with 65% of seropositive samples. This suggests that prevalence is negatively related to the proportion of newborn and juvenile rabbits in a population. Our results also showed that seroprevalence against MYXV tended to be higher in high-abundance populations. In contrast, no differences were detected in seroprevalence between rabbit subspecies. This study confirms that >60years since first outbreak, myxomatosis is an endemic disease in Spain. Based on the results, the establishment of a myxomatosis surveillance protocol is proposed.

The role of sex and age in the architecture of intrapopulation howler monkey-plant networks in continuous and fragmented rain forests.

We evaluated the structure of intrapopulation howler monkey-plant interactions by focusing on the plant species consumed by different sex and age classes in continuous and fragmented forests in southern Mexico. For this we used network analysis to evaluate the impact of fragmentation on howler population traits and on resource availability and food choice. A total of 37 tree and liana species and seven plant items (bark, immature fruits, flowers, mature fruits, immature leaves, mature leaves and petioles) were consumed, but their relative consumption varied according to sex and age classes and habitat type. Overall, adult females consumed the greatest number of plant species and items while infants and juveniles the lowest. For both continuous and fragmented forests, we found a nested diet for howler monkey-plant networks: diets of more selective monkeys represent subsets of the diets of other individuals. Nestedness was likely due to the high selectivity of early life stages in specific food plants and items, which contrasts with the generalized foraging behaviour of adults. Information on the extent to which different plant species and primate populations depend on such interactions in different habitats will help to make accurate predictions about the potential impact of disturbances on plant-animal interaction networks.