Navigating COVID-19 and racial trauma as a Black student at predominantly White institutions.

Black students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) contend with racial microaggressions that can lead to negative mental health and academic outcomes. The physical and mental health consequences of the novel coronavirus pandemic are well-known. What remains unknown is how targeted racial hate during a pandemic might have a compounded effect on Black essential workers. The current study examines how future essential workers in helping professions cope with dual crises as they navigate mostly White universities. Study participants were Black university students attending PWIs in the United States enrolled in social work, public health, or psychology programs during the 2020-2021 academic year. Participants completed an online survey that measured racial microaggressions, COVID distress, sense of belonging, engagement in activism, and well-being. Hierarchical regression models revealed COVID distress predicted poorer well-being. Also, COVID distress interacted with racial microaggressions to predict well-being. Findings have implications for developing decolonized learning communities with a liberation pedagogy in community psychology and other helping professions.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Alcohol Use among Black College Students: Examining the Mediating Roles of Depression and Coping Drinking Motives.

Background: Over the past two decades, research has linked adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) to adult health-risk behaviors such as excessive alcohol use. Yet, few have investigated health-risk behaviors among Black college students. Research suggests that Black college students are at lower risk for hazardous drinking patterns, yet ACEs appear to alter the drinking patterns of Black students. Other studies have also shown depressive symptoms and coping-motivated drinking to predict greater alcohol consumption for this ethnic group. Objective: The current study investigated the relationship between ACEs and hazardous patterns of drinking, including frequency of alcohol use, binge, and heavy drinking episodes, using a sample of 282 Black students attending a historically black college/university (HBCU). Results: Depressive symptoms and coping drinking motives were tested as serial mediators between ACEs and the three drinking patterns. Results revealed a significant indirect effect of ACEs on the frequency of alcohol use, binge, and heavy drinking episodes, through depressive symptoms and coping drinking motives. Depressive symptoms also independently mediated the relationship between ACEs and heavy drinking episodes. Conclusion: The finding suggested that drinking perhaps serves as a maladaptive coping strategy to address underlying early life stress and depression for Black students.

Depressive symptoms, racism, and school belonging: examining correlates of substance use behaviors among Black college students.

College is a context in which Black adults are at heightened risk for substance use behaviors and subsequently more harmful consequences. Increasingly, scholars are recognizing that to better understand shifts in patterns of substance use behaviors and health disparities among Black adults, mental health and racism are important factors to consider. Racism is multidimensional; thus, research is needed to investigate its multiple forms. Currently, it is unknown how the occurrence of depressive symptoms and various racism experiences influence patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students. Further, while school belonging is evidenced to promote better health outcomes during adolescence, research is needed to understand school belonging in relation to substance use among Black college students. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we identify patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students (N = 152) and examine whether depressive symptoms, racism experiences (i.e., racial discrimination stress, internalized racism, negative police encounters), and school belonging are associated with the unique patterns. Latent profiles included indicators of substance use behavior frequency. Four patterns emerged: 1) low substance use, 2) predominant alcohol use, 3) co-use, 4) high polysubstance use. Depressive symptoms, internalized racism, and negative police encounters were significant correlates of patterns of substance use behaviors. School belonging, specifically, participation in student, cultural, spiritual, and Greek organizations, was also associated with profile membership. Findings suggest a need to integrate a broader understanding of how mental health and racism impacts the lives of Black college students, in addition to processes for supporting school belonging.

Critical Action and Ethnic-Racial Identity: Tools of Racial Resistance at the College Transition.

This study examines the reciprocal relationship between critical action and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration in Black college students using a longitudinal cross-lagged model. Participants were Black students (N = 237; Mage = 18.2; 74% female) from a longitudinal study of college transition. Analyses examined the temporal ordering and directionality of associations between critical action and ERI exploration over four time points from college entry through four years of college. Critical action positively predicted ERI exploration over each year of college, and ERI exploration positively predicted critical action in a reciprocal fashion over the same years. These findings underscore theoretical assertions that critical action and ERI are intertwined in Black youths' development and provide insight into how critical action and ERI overlap beyond adolescence.

Longitudinal Effects of the "Acting White" Accusation and Racial Identity Development Among Black College Students.

The "acting White" accusation (AWA) is a type of cultural invalidation that undermines the racial authenticity of Black youths. This study examines how the AWA and racial identity (RI) influence one another longitudinally during the transition to college for Black students. Findings were moderated by gender. For Black males, a negative feedback loop emerged for RI centrality where AWA experiences predicted lower centrality, which then predicted more AWA experiences over a 2-year period. Additionally, AWA experiences in high school predicted lower RI private regard for Black males and lower RI public regard for Black females during the first year of college. Implications and policy recommendations to address forms of cultural oppression such as the AWA are further discussed.

Intimate Partner Violence and Help-seeking Behavior Among College Students Attending A Historically Black College and University.

This study provides critical evidence of the diversity of college students' experiences with intimate partner violence (IPV) and their informal and formal help-seeking behaviors at a historically Black college and university (HBCU). The study collected data on college students (N = 266) in fall 2021 using a one-site cross-sectional survey data. Findings revealed that many students at the HBCU reported IPV victimization (68.4%), IPV perpetration (68.0%), and coexperience of IPV victimization and perpetration (61.3%) in the past 12 months, but a few student survivors of IPV sought help from formal or informal support systems. Further, we found that IPV victimization types (e.g., physical, psychological, sexual abuse, and injury) with different severity levels (e.g., less severe or more severe) were differently related to the student survivor's help-seeking behaviors from formal and informal support systems. The findings of this study highlight the importance of supporting students attending HBCUs by addressing their perceptions of IPV help-seeking and coping with different types of IPV victimization via culturally tailored IPV prevention programs. HBCU campuses should promote physical health and mental health services for Black/African American survivors in HBCUs.

Linked fate among underrepresented groups: Investigating the relationships between Black college students' perceptions of institutional diversity climate and mental health.

Objective: Negative perceptions of institutional racial climate relate to worse mental health outcomes for Black college students. Yet, few scholars have considered how Black students' perceptions of the institutional climate for other underrepresented groups may impact mental health. Participants and Methods: We drew on a national sample of Black college students across 15 institutions (n = 1188) to examine the effects of institutional diversity climate on students' anxiety, depression, and positive mental health. Results: Black students who perceived the campus as more welcoming to first-generation reported higher positive mental health. Black students who perceived the campus as more welcoming to racial minorities, lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB), and low socioeconomic status (SES) students reported lower levels of depression and anxiety. Conclusions: Black students' perceptions of the institutional diversity climate for other groups influences their mental health outcomes, and underscores the need for more research on individual-level differences in students' mental health processes.

Race- and university-specific norms associated with alcohol use among Black college students.

Approximately one-third of college students engage in heavy episodic drinking. Although White students drink more than Black students, White individuals are more likely to mature out of heavy drinking, whereas Black individuals drink more as they age and experience disproportionate alcohol-related consequences. Compared to their White counterparts, limited research has examined factors associated with alcohol use among Black college students. Descriptive drinking norms based on the typical college student are strong predictors of college student drinking, but previous research found that this association was weaker for Black college students. Therefore, the current study is a preliminary examination of perceived drinking norms (descriptive) and approval (injunctive) based on race for Black college students. Further, we explored likelihood of excessive drinking around other Black students. The current study included survey responses of 192 Black college students from a large southeastern US university. Results indicated that university and race-specific descriptive norms, but not university and race-specific injunctive norms, were associated with more drinks per week. These findings suggest that descriptive norms with Black students at the participant's university as the normative reference group are associated with alcohol use among Black students. Further, greater likelihood of drinking excessively around peers who share the same racial identity may impact alcohol consumption for this population. Current prevention programs for college student drinking are tailored by gender rather than race; however, preliminary findings from the current study suggests that tailoring by race may be an effective way to prevent alcohol misuse among Black college students.

Sex differences in how ethnic-racial identity informs first coital affect and virginity beliefs among Black college students.

Objective: The present study examined whether ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation informed individuals' beliefs about virginity (ie, virginity as a gift, stigma, process) and first coital affective reactions (FCAR; ie, positive and negative), and whether these relations varied by biological sex. Participants and method: The sample consisted of 184 Black college students (Mage = 19.79, SD = 2.08) enrolled in a large Southern university. Participants completed a virginity beliefs measure, first coital affective reaction measure, and an ethnic-racial identity measure. Results: Findings indicated that for Black females, greater ERI exploration was associated with decreased virginity as a gift beliefs; and ERI resolution was associated with increased virginity as a gift beliefs. Additionally, for Black males and females, ERI affirmation resulted in more positive FCAR, less negative FCAR, and less views of virginity as a stigma. Conclusion: Finding implications are presented in the context of future research.

Exploring the association between mental health climate and depression: the protective role of positive mental health and sense of belonging among Black college students.

Objective: To explore relationships between mental health climate, positive mental health, sense of belonging, and depression among a U.S. national sample of Black college students. Participants: 1303 Black undergraduate and graduate students from 15 colleges and universities throughout the U.S. Methods: Data were from the 2018-2019 Healthy Minds Study. Analysis included hierarchical regression models. Results: A more positive perception of mental health climate and higher levels of both positive mental health and sense of belonging were significantly associated with lower levels of depression. Significant interactions existed between positive mental health and climate and sense of belonging and climate with buffering effects being most pronounced for students reporting high levels of positive mental health. Conclusion: Black college students' perceptions of an institution's mental health climate are associated with psychological outcomes. College health stakeholders should consider the buffering effects of protective factors on mental health when designing initiatives for Black college students.

Contextualizing the racial gradient in covid-19 outcomes: Narratives from HBCU students.

COVID-19 spread across the nation with Black Americans experiencing twice of the prevalence of deaths than White Americans. Black American college students are facing a unique set of biopsychosocial costs including less retention and poorer mental health. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how Historically Black College or University (HBCU) students contextualize COVID-19. Interviews were conducted with 19 participants and lasted 40-60 minutes. They discussed topics including: their COVID-19 knowledge, precautionary measures, and barriers and promoters of school success were covered. Data were coded through semi-open coding and discussed among the research team. Responses were summarized by eight themes: emotional responses, colorblind rhetoric, lack of healthcare, essential work, distrust for the medical field, barriers to precautions like supply shortages and environmental factors, and poor baseline health. These findings may be used to develop interventions that moderate the impact of COVID-19 and future pandemics on mental health.

The Influence of Distressed Coping on the Relationship between Perceived Racial Discrimination and Cannabis Use among Black College Students.

Approximately one in five Black students report cannabis use, which is associated with academic challenges, mental health, and interpersonal problems. Understanding motivators to use cannabis among Black students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) warrants more research. Perceived racial discrimination (PRD), believing one is treated unjustly due to race, is related to substance use and variables associated with poor coping, such as depression and anxiety. Given that research is unavailable for Black college students on the factor structure of the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) using chronicity-based coding, the first aim of the study is to examine the factor structure of the chronicity-based version of the EDS. The second aim is to investigate whether distressed coping is an intervening construct between PRD and cannabis use among Black college students. Participants, recruited from a midwestern PWI (N = 119), completed the EDS, the coping subscale of the Comprehensive Marijuana Motivations Measure, and reported past-year cannabis use. Factor analysis examined the measurement model of the EDS, while path analysis assessed the mediation models. A two-factor model assessing subtle and blatant PRD on the EDS fit the data. The path analysis revealed that distressed coping fully mediated the relationship between subtle PRD and cannabis use. Distressed coping did not mediate the relation between blatant PRD and cannabis use. Institutions might focus on reducing PRD and provide support to Black students to lessen its link to distressed coping and cannabis use.

The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Internalized Racism in Black Young Adults.

The study examined the relationships between social anxiety (SA), generalized anxiety (GA), and depression with racial microaggressions and internalized racism (IR) among Black young adults. Given SA's core features, we expected it to have a unique association with IR, and to moderate the connection between racial microaggressions and IR. Participants were 182 Black university students who completed measures of SA, GA, depressive symptoms, racial microaggressions, and IR. Linear regression models indicated that IR was a significant predictor of SA, but not GA or depression. Racial microaggressions were only positively associated with depressive symptoms. SA and racial microaggressions each predicted IR, but no interaction was found. Black young adults with elevated concerns of others' evaluation may be more prone to accepting negative stereotypes about one's racial group.

Black college students at elevated risk for suicide: Barriers to mental health service utilization.

OBJECTIVE: To examine differences between Black students who do and do not screen positive for suicide risk; to describe barriers to mental health service utilization (MHSU) among participants with a positive screen and no current MHSU and; to determine if barriers vary by student characteristics. Participants: 1,559 Black students (66% female), ages 18 years and older (M = 21 years, SD = 2.61) recruited from September 2015 to October 2017 across four universities. Method: Participants completed an online survey assessing demographics, suicide risk, MHSU, and barriers to MHSU. Results: Seventeen percent of students screened positive for risk; 66% of these students were not receiving MHS. Students who screened positive were female and younger. Perceived problem severity (74%) was reported most frequently. Conclusions: Efforts to improve MHSU among Black college students at risk for suicide should address students' awareness of treatable MH problems and time concerns.

Black First-Year College Students' Alcohol Outcome Expectancies.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol outcome expectancies (AOEs) are associated with college students' varied alcohol consumption. Existing research on AOEs focuses primarily on heterosexual White students. Thus, it is important to explore how the intersection of multiple identities such as race, gender, and sexual orientation influence the endorsement of specific AOEs. PURPOSE: This paper examines AOEs among Black first-year college students, with specific attention to the influence of gender and sexual orientation. METHODS: Participants were 307 Black students from four universities in the United States. We conducted bivariate analyses using the 2-factor and 4-factor B-CEOA scale. RESULTS: Most students did not hold positive AOEs such as tension reduction and sexual enhancement. They were more likely to endorse negative AOEs such as behavioral and cognitive impairment and social risk. DISCUSSION: Black first-year college students reported more negative expectations associated with alcohol use, including those related to negative social risks and consequences. Thus, AOEs may serve as a protective factor against alcohol use among Black college students. TRANSLATION TO HEALTH EDUCATION PRACTICE: Alcohol interventions should be tailored to focus on the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation. Culturally relevant alcohol interventions have the potential to reduce the immediate and long-term consequences of alcohol use.

Perceived Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Health Behaviors in Black College Students.

For college students, the transition from adolescence to young adulthood can be a time of increased stress and negative health behaviors, such as poor diet and physical inactivity, that may lead to cardiovascular disease (CVD), the primary cause of death in the United States. Blacks are disproportionately prone to CVD. Perception of disease risk is a critical predictor of engagement in healthy lifestyle activities intended to reduce CVD development. This project examined the relationship between perceived risk of CVD and health behaviors in Black HBCU students aged 18-25 years. All participants (n = 14) perceived that they were not at risk for heart disease within the next 10 years. Almost half (n = 6, 42.86%) had moderately high CVD risk scores, and three (21.43%) were at high risk for developing CVD. Scores on the subscales for dread risk, risk, and unknown risk were 28.29, 37.67, and 43.86, respectively. Total scores for perceived risk of heart disease ranged from 20 to 80. The Spearman's correlation between these Black college students' perceived dread risk and health responsibility was positive and moderately correlated (rs = 0.62, p = 0.019). A negative and moderate correlation was demonstrated between unknown perceived risk and health responsibility (rs = -0.54, p = 0.046). Thus, higher risk perception is correlated with greater health responsibility, while low risk perception is correlated with less health responsibility. Barriers to healthy lifestyle behaviors identified by the sample included lack of time and sleep, physical inactivity, cost, convenience of unhealthy foods, and low perception of developing CVD. A major implication is the benefit of implementing interventions to modify risk perception and college-specific barriers that increase CVD risk.