Visual word identification beyond common words: The role of font and letter case in brand names.

While abstractionist theories of visual word recognition propose that perceptual elements like font and letter case are filtered out during lexical access, instance-based theories allow for the possibility that these surface details influence this process. To disentangle these accounts, we focused on brand names embedded in logotypes. The consistent visual presentation of brand names may render them much more susceptible to perceptual factors than common words. In the present study, we compared original and modified brand logos, varying in font or letter case. In Experiment 1, participants decided whether the stimuli corresponded to existing brand names or not, regardless of graphical information. In Experiment 2, participants had to categorize existing brand names semantically - whether they corresponded to a brand in the transportation sector or not. Both experiments showed longer response times for the modified brand names, regardless of font or letter-case changes. These findings challenge the notion that only abstract units drive visual word recognition. Instead, they favor those models that assume that, under some circumstances, the traces in lexical memory may contain surface perceptual information.

"Spice," "kryptonite," "black mamba": an overview of brand names and marketing strategies of novel psychoactive substances on the web.

UNLABELLED: Abstract Introduction: Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPSs) are often sold online as "legal" and "safer" alternatives to International Controlled Drugs (ICDs) with captivating marketing strategies. Our aim was to review and summarize such strategies in terms of the appearance of the products, the brand names, and the latest trends in the illicit online marketplaces. METHODS: Scientific data were searched in PsychInfo and Pubmed databases; results were integrated with an extensive monitoring of Internet (websites, online shops, chat rooms, fora, social networks) and media sources in nine languages (English, French, Farsi, Portuguese, Arabic, Russian, Spanish, and Chinese simplified/traditional) available from secure databases of the Global Public Health Intelligence Network. RESULTS: Evolving strategies for the online diffusion and the retail of NPSs have been identified, including discounts and periodic offers on chosen products. Advertisements and new brand names have been designed to attract customers, especially young people. An increased number of retailers have been recorded as well as new Web platforms and privacy systems. DISCUSSION: NPSs represent an unprecedented challenge in the field of public health with social, cultural, legal, and political implications. Web monitoring activities are essential for mapping the diffusion of NPSs and for supporting innovative Web-based prevention programmes.

Identification and quantification of prescription errors.

BACKGROUND: Prescription errors are commonly encountered in health care settings. They can lead to inefficient delivery of health care thus jeopardizing patient care. Knowing the quantum and the possible causes of such errors is the first step in trying to prevent them. We conducted a random audit of prescriptions received in service dispensary of a tertiary care hospital and analyzed them for prescription errors. METHODS: A total of 1000 prescriptions were randomly selected. These prescriptions were analyzed with the help of three qualified pharmacists and were stratified as per the errors encountered. RESULTS: Out of the total of 1000 prescriptions, 650 prescriptions (65%) were found to have a total of 1012 errors. Type B errors were found in 22.4% prescriptions, type C errors in 9.7% prescriptions and type D in 69.1% prescriptions. CONCLUSION: Prescription errors require proactive, continuous and meticulous monitoring so as to minimize them. It requires identification of preventable causes, increasing awareness and sensitizing the prescriber towards this important aspect of health care delivery.

Tracking the brain signature of (mis)spelled logotypes via letter transpositions and replacements.

All leading models of visual word recognition assume a hierarchical process that progressively converts the visual input into abstract letter and word representations. However, the results from recent behavioral studies suggest that the mental representations of words with a highly consistent visual format, such as logotypes, may comprise not only purely abstract information but also perceptual information. This hypothesis would explain why participants often misperceive transposed-letter misspellings with the original base words to a larger degree in logotypes (e.g., SASMUNG, but not SARVUNG, is perceived as SAMSUNG) than in common words. The present experiment examined the electrophysiological signature behind the identification of correctly spelled and misspelled logotypes (via letter transposition or replacement) in an ERP go/no-go semantic categorization experiment. Results showed that N400 amplitudes for transposed-letter misspelled logotypes (SASMUNG) and intact logotypes (SAMSUNG) did not differ significantly across various time windows (until 600 ms), whereas replacement-letter misspelled logotypes (SARVUNG) yielded consistently larger N400 amplitudes. These findings reveal that the mental representations of logotypes are particularly resistant to minor orthographic changes, which has important theoretical and applied (e.g., marketing) implications.

Dissociating the Effects of Visual Similarity for Brand Names and Common Words.

Abstractionist models of visual word recognition can easily accommodate the absence of visual similarity effects in misspelled common words (e.g., viotin vs. viocin) during lexical decision tasks. However, these models fail to account for the sizable effects of visual similarity observed in misspelled brand names (e.g., anazon produces longer responses and more errors than atazon). Importantly, this dissociation has only been reported in separate experiments. Thus, a crucial experiment is necessary to simultaneously examine the role of visual similarity with misspelled common words and brand names. In the current experiment, participants performed a lexical decision task using both brand names and common words. Nonword foils were created by replacing visually similar letters (e.g., anazon [baseword: amazon], anarilllo [amarillo, yellow]) or visually dissimilar letters (e.g., atazon, atarillo). Results showed sizeable visual letter similarity effects for misspelled brand names in response times and percent error. Critically, these effects were absent for misspelled common words. The pervasiveness of visual similarity effects for misspelled brand names, even in the presence of common words, challenges purely abstractionist accounts of visual word recognition. Instead, these findings support instance-based and weakly abstractionist theories, suggesting that episodic traces in the mental lexicon may retain perceptual information, particularly when words are repeatedly presented in a similar format.

When Food Co-Branding Backfires: The Overexpectation Effect.

While food research has paid considerable attention to the effect of brand names on brand evaluation, the role of co-branding strategies and hence simultaneous exposure to two different brand names is under-researched. Against this background, we investigated the overexpectation effect in the context of food co-branding. More specifically, we explored to what extent food co-branding can harm brand evaluations of the co-brand and the brand level of the partner. In doing so, we challenged the conventional wisdom that co-branding leads to higher brand evaluations than those of monobrands. Results from two online experiments confirmed the theoretical reasoning derived from adaptive learning models: combining two brands results in an overexpectation effect, which manifests in a decrease in levels of brand evaluation for the co-brand compared to the partnering brands before co-brand exposure. Brand strength and brand fit moderate this effect.

Are brand names special words? Letter visual-similarity affects the identification of brand names, but not common words.

Brand names are often considered a special type of words of special relevance to examine the role of visual codes during reading: unlike common words, brand names are typically presented with the same letter-case configuration (e.g., IKEA, adidas). Recently, Pathak et al. (European Journal of Marketing, 2019, 53, 2109) found an effect of visual similarity for misspelled brand names when the participants had to decide whether the brand name was spelled correctly or not (e.g., tacebook [baseword: facebook] was responded more slowly and less accurately than xacebook). This finding is at odds with both orthographically based visual-word recognition models and prior experiments using misspelled common words (e.g., viotin [baseword: violin] is identified as fast as viocin). To solve this puzzle, we designed two experiments in which the participants had to decide whether the presented item was written correctly. In Experiment 1, following a procedure similar to Pathak et al. (European Journal of Marketing, 2019, 53, 2109), we examined the effect of visual similarity on misspelled brand names with/without graphical information (e.g., anazon vs. atazon [baseword: amazon]). Experiment 2 was parallel to Experiment 1, but we focused on misspelled common words (e.g., anarillo vs. atarillo; baseword: amarillo [yellow in Spanish]). Results showed a sizeable effect of visual similarity on misspelled brand names - regardless of their graphical information, but not on misspelled common words. These findings suggest that visual codes play a greater role when identifying brand names than common words. We examined how models of visual-word recognition can account for this dissociation.

Evidence from masked-priming that initial identification of brand names is via abstract letter identities.

Although visual-word recognition is often assumed to proceed on the basis of case-invariant letter representations, previous research has shown a role for letter-case in recognizing brand names. One recent study reported early effects of letter-case in a brand-decision task using masked primes (Perea et al., 2015, British Journal of Psychology, 106, 162). The present study attempts to replicate this finding using brand names typically presented in all lowercase (e.g., adidas), all uppercase (e.g., IKEA), or titlecase (e.g., Ford). Across three masked-priming experiments, we found no advantage for case-matched identity primes over case-mismatched identity primes. This finding suggests that brand-specific letter-case information does not play a role in the early processing of brand names. However, we observed evidence that case may be used as a cue for making brand decisions, which may explain the effect reported by Perea et al. (2015, British Journal of Psychology, 106, 162).

Substitutes of Prescription Medicines - A Review of Concerns Relevant to Doctors and Patients.

A very large part of India's population fulfils its healthcare needs from government run healthcare delivery system which is free, contributory or highly subsidised. Use of medicines forms a large part of healthcare facility. As the number of medicines and brands are ever increasing in today's market, it is usual for pharmacy to substitute a generic instead of the prescribed brand or a different brand if the prescribed brand is not available. Depending on the type of substitute, it could fall under 'generic' or 'therapeutic' substitution. For any condition, there may be numerous medicines existing, some of which probably got introduced more recently, may be more expensive and erroneously perceived to act better than the earlier known medications for the same ailment. Also, due to very high number of medicines that are approved and available for use in the market, it is impossible to stock all the medicines in any pharmacy. Generic and therapeutic substitutions should be formalised and implemented by institutions, with the consent and cooperation of all the stake holders as guided by World Health Organisation. The advantages and limitations of medicine substitutes are discussed in the review.

Analysis of variations in the display of drug names in computerized prescriber-order-entry systems.

PURPOSE: The variations in how drug names are displayed in computerized prescriber-order-entry (CPOE) systems were analyzed to determine their contribution to potential medication errors. METHODS: A diverse set of 10 inpatient and outpatient CPOE system vendors and self-developed CPOE systems in 6 U.S. healthcare institutions was evaluated. A team of pharmacists, physicians, patient-safety experts, and informatics experts created a CPOE assessment tool to standardize the assessment of CPOE features across the systems studied. Hypothetical scenarios were conducted with test patients to study the medication ordering workflow and ways in which medications were displayed in each system. Brand versus generic drug name ordering was studied at 1 large outpatient system to understand why prescribers ordered both brand and generic forms of the same drug. RESULTS: Widespread variations in the display of drug names were observed both within and across the 6 study sites and 10 systems, including the inconsistent display of brand and generic names. Some displayed drugs differently even on the same screen. Combination products were often displayed inconsistently, and some systems required prescribers to know the first drug listed in the combination in order for the correct product to appear in a search. It also appeared that prescribers may have prescribed both brand and generic forms of the same medication, creating the potential for drug duplication errors. CONCLUSION: A review of 10 CPOE systems revealed that medication names were displayed inconsistently, which can result in confusion or errors in reviewing, selecting, and ordering medications.

Brand names of Portuguese medication: understanding the importance of their linguistic structure and regulatory issues / Nomes de marca dos medicamentos Portugueses: sua estrutura linguística e aspetos regulatórios

Abstract Among other regulatory requirements, medicine brands should be composed of single names without abbreviations to prevent errors in prescription of medication. The purposes of the study were to investigate the compliance of a sam ple of Portuguese medicine brand names with Portuguese pharmaceutical regulations. This includes identifying their basic linguistic characteristics and comparing these features and their frequency of occurrence with benchmark values of the colloquial or informal language. A sample of 474 brand names was selected. Names were analyzed using manual (visual analyses) and computer methods (FreP - Frequency Patterns of Phonological Objects in Portuguese and MS word). A significant number of names (61.3%) failed to comply with the Portuguese phonologic system (related to the sound of words) and/or the spelling system (related to the written form of words) contained more than one word, comprised a high proportion of infrequent syllable types or stress patterns and included abbreviations. The results suggest that some of the brand names of Portuguese medication should be reevaluated, and that regulation on this issue should be enforced and updated, taking into consideration specific linguistic and spelling codes.

Resumo Entre outros requisitos regulatórios, o nome dos medicamentos de marca deve ser composto por um único nome e não integrar abreviaturas para evitar erros de medicação. Os objetivos do estudo foram: investigar a adequação de um grupo de nomes de medicamentos de marca portugueses à regulação farmacêutica do mesmo País; identificar as suas características linguísticas básicas e comparar essas características e a sua frequência com valores de referência da língua corrente ou informal. Foi selecionada uma amostra de 474 nomes. Os nomes foram analisados com recurso a métodos manuais (análise visual) e automáticos (FreP - Frequency Patterns of Phonological Objects in Portuguese e o MS word). Um número significativo de nomes (61,3%) não estava em conformidade com o sistema fonológico (relacionado com a forma sonora das palavras) e ortográfico do Português (relacionado com a forma de escrita das palavras), tinha mais de uma palavra, continha uma alta proporção padrões silábicos e acentuais raros, e incluía abreviaturas. Os resultados sugerem que alguns dos nomes das marcas medicamentos portugueses devem ser reavaliadas e os aspetos regulatórios atualizados, tendo em consideração as características específicas do sistema linguístico e ortográfico português.

Evaluación del efecto de bloqueo en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias / Assessment of the blocking effect in classical conditioning of preferences

Esta investigación experimental tuvo como objetivo poner a prueba el efecto de bloqueo de Kamin en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias. Se diseñaron tres partes: Estudio 1, Experimento 1 y Experimento 2. El Estudio preliminar (n = 54) consistió en la elección de los estímulos condicionados (marcas publicitarias ficticias) y del estímulo incondicionado (figura femenina con una proporción controlada de la medida de cintura/ cadera). En el Experimento 1 (n = 60) se efectuó el entrenamiento en condicionamiento clásico de preferencias. Finalmente, en el Experimento 2 (n = 40), se examinó el efecto de bloqueo en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias con pruebas de tipo cognoscitivo y afectivo. Participaron estudiantes universitarios de diferentes carreras entre 17 y 25 años. Los resultados indican que se manifestó un efecto de bloqueo en tres de las cuatro pruebas utilizadas para evaluar dicho fenómeno. Se plantea, a manera de conclusión, que este efecto potencialmente explica diferentes fenómenos en los campos de la publicidad y el mercadeo, especialmente en lo que concierne a competencia de marcas.

This experimental research was aimed to test Kamin's blocking effect in classical conditioning of preferences applied in the advertisement area. This study was divided into three parts: preliminary Study, Experiment 1, and Experiment 2. In the preliminary Study, both conditioned (a false publicity brand) and unconditioned stimuli (female figure with a controlled waist-to-hip ratio) were selected. Experiments 1 and 2 consisted of training in classical conditioning of preferences and blocking effect. 17-25 year-old undergraduate students of different careers participated in the present study. According to the results, a blocking effect was observed, suggesting an explanation for different phenomena in fields such as marketing or advertisement, especially when implying brands competition.

Há riscos na utilização de diferentes formulações de drogas antiepilépticas? Relato da ABE através de entrevista de pessoas com epilepsia / Are there risks in the use of different antiepileptic drug formulations? Report of the Associação Brasileira de Epilepsia trough a survey of people with epilepsy

INTRODUÇÃO: Há controvérsias se drogas antiepilépticas (DAEs) genéricas são intercambiáveis com as de referência, assim como com as similares com respeito a eficácia e efeitos adversos. Este fato é de fundamental importância e ainda mais relevante em países em desenvolvimento com limitações orçamentárias na área de saúde. MÉTODOS: Após aprovação de Comitê de Ética a Associação Brasileira de Epilepsia aplicou um questionário a pessoas com epilepsia (PCE) com 18 questões de múltipla escolha: quatro relacionadas a dados sócio-demográficos e 14 sobre o conhecimento das formulações de DAEs (de referência, genéricas e similares) e da evidência de mudanças clínicas durante a troca (Teste exato de Fisher, significância 05 por cento). RESULTADOS: 731 PCE de seis Hospitais do Sistema Público participaram, sendo que 91 por cento eram de classes sócio-econômicas média e baixas; das PCE maiores de 18 anos, 24,4 por cento tinha menos de 4 anos de escolaridade, 24,4 por cento entre 5 a 8, 45,6 por cento tinha pelo menos 9 anos de estudo; 63 por cento recebia mais de uma DAE (53,3 por cento carbamazepina, 26,3 por cento valproato de sódio); 58,1 por cento obtinha as DAEs de órgãos públicos e 21,2 por cento somente em farmácias privadas. Das 731 PCE consultadas, 60,6 por cento não conhecia as diferentes formulações de DAEs (PCE com maior escolarização responderam mais corretamente, p<0.001); somente 36 por cento sabia que a primeira DAE é a referência (maior escolarização, p<0.001); e 10 por cento considerou genéricos "medicações oficiais do governo". Após serem instruídos sobre as formulações de DAEs, 24,7 por cento não sabia que genéricos são mais baratos do que as medicações de referência, 32,5 por cento considerou sua qualidade pior e somente 30 por cento sabia os detalhes de sua embalagem (classes de maior renda, p=0.004). Durante o último ano, 25,6 por cento receberam diferentes formulações de DAEs (especialmente carbamazepina e valproato de sódio) ...

PURPOSE: Controversy persists whether generic antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are interchangeable with brand name and similar drugs regarding efficacy and adverse events. This issue is very relevant and still more important in underdeveloped countries with limited health expenditures. METHODS: After Ethical Committee approval the "Associação Brasileira de Epilepsia" applied a questionnaire for people with epilepsy (PWE) with multiple-choice questions: four about sociodemography and 14 regarding formulations knowledge (reference, generic and similar drugs) and clinical change evidence during AED formulation switch (Fisher test, level 05 percent). RESULTS: 731 PWE from six Public System Hospitals participated being 91 percent from middle/low income classes; from the PWE older than 18yrs. 24.4 percent had less than 4 yrs. of education, 24.4 percent between 5 and 8, 45.6 percent had at least 9 yrs. of schooling; 63 percent received more than one AED (53.3 percent carbamazepine, 26.3 percent sodium valproate); 58.1 percent obtained AEDs from public resources and 21.2 percent only in private pharmacies. From the 731 PWE, 60.6 percent did not know the existence of different AED formulations (more educated PWE, high income classes responded more correctly, p<0.001); only 36 percent knew that the first produced drug is the reference (more educated, p<0.001) and 10 percent considered generics "official governmental drugs". After instructed about formulations, 24.7 percent ignored generics are cheaper than reference drugs, 32.5 percent considered their quality worse and only 30 percent knew their packing details (high income classes, p=0.004). During the last year, 25.6 percent received different formulations (mainly carbamazepine, sodium valproate) and 14.5 percent (especially lower educated, p<0.001) referred breakthrough seizures after switching (carbamazepine, sodium valproate, lamotrigine) and 12.2 percent, increased side effects (carbamazepine, ...