Identification of potentially zoonotic parasites in captive orangutans and semi-captive mandrills: Phylogeny and morphological comparison.

Cysts and trophozoites of vestibuliferid ciliates and larvae of Strongyloides were found in fecal samples from captive orangutans Pongo pygmaeus and P. abelii from Czech and Slovak zoological gardens. As comparative material, ciliates from semi-captive mandrills Mandrillus sphinx from Gabon were included in the study. Phylogenetic analysis of the detected vestibuliferid ciliates using ITS1-5.8s-rRNA-ITS2 and partial 18S ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) revealed that the ciliates from orangutans are conspecific with Balantioides coli lineage A, while the ciliates from mandrills clustered with Buxtonella-like ciliates from other primates. Morphological examination of the cysts and trophozoites using light microscopy did not reveal differences robust enough to identify the genera of the ciliates. Phylogenetic analysis of detected L1 larvae of Strongyloides using partial cox1 revealed Strongyloides stercoralis clustering within the cox1 lineage A infecting dogs, humans, and other primates. The sequences of 18S rDNA support these results. As both B. coli and S. stercoralis are zoonotic parasites and the conditions in captive and semi-captive settings may facilitate transmission to humans, prophylactic measures should reflect the findings.

In silico analyses of the genomes of three new bacteriocin-producing bacteria isolated from animal's faeces.

Here, we have analysed and explored the genome sequences of three newly isolated bacteria that were recently characterised for their probiotic activities and ability to produce bacteriocins. These strains, isolated from faeces of animals living in captivity at the zoological garden of Lille (France), are Escherichia coli ICVB443, Enterococcus faecalis ICVB501 and Pediococcus pentosaceus ICVB491. Their genomes have been analysed and compared to those of their pathogenic or probiotic counterparts. The genome analyses of E. coli ICVB443 and Ent. faecalis ICVB501 displayed similarities to those of probiotics E. coli 1917 Nissle, and Ent. faecalis Symbioflor 1, respectively. Furthermore, E. coli ICVB443 shares at least 89 genes with the enteroaggregative E. coli 55989 (EAEC), and Ent. faecalis ICVB501 shares at least 315 genes with the pathogenic Ent. faecalis V583 strain. Unlike Ped. pentosaceus ICVB491, which is devoid of virulence genes, E. coli ICVB443 and Ent. faecalis ICVB501 both carry genes encoding virulence factors on their genomes. Of note, the bioinformatics analysis of these two genomes located the bsh gene, which codes for bile salt hydrolase (BSH). The presence of BSH is of major importance, as it can help to increase the viability of these two strains in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The genome analysis of Ped. pentosaceus ICVB491 confirmed its GRAS status (Generally Recognised As Safe), as no genomic virulence factor determinant was found.

Investigation of giardiasis in captive animals in zoological gardens with strain typing of assemblages in China.

Giardia duodenalis is a common zoonotic intestinal pathogen. It has been increasingly reported in humans and animals; however, genotyping information for G. duodenalis in captive animals is still limited. This study was conducted to assess the prevalence and multilocus genotyping of G. duodenalis in captive animals in zoological gardens in Shanghai, China. A total of 678 fresh fecal samples were randomly collected from captive animals including non-human primates (NHPs) (n = 190), herbivores (n = 190), carnivores (n = 151), birds (n = 138) and reptiles (n = 9) in a zoo and were examined for the presence of G. duodenalis using nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR). All G. duodenalis positive samples were assayed with PCR followed by sequencing at ß-giardin (bg), glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) genes. In this study, 42 specimens (6.2%) were tested G. duodenalis-positive of the 678 fecal samples examined based on a single locus. A total of 30 (4.4%), 30 (4.4%) and 22 (3.2%) specimens were successfully amplified and sequenced at gdh, tpi and bg loci, respectively. Assemblages A and B were identified with assemblage B dominating in NHPs. Sequence analysis demonstrated that one, two and five new isolates were identified at bg, gdh and tpi loci. DNA sequences and new assemblage-subtypes of zoonotic G. duodenalis assemblages A and B were identified in the current study. Our data indicate the occurrence and molecular diversity of G. duodenalis and the potential zoonotic transmission in captive animals in China.

Wearing the devil down: Rate of tooth wear varies between wild and captive Tasmanian devils.

Mammalian carnivores rely on their sharp teeth to effectively kill and consume prey. However, over time this causes wear and breakage that alters tooth shape, reducing their effectiveness. Extreme tooth wear and damage is especially prevalent in species that scavenge carcasses, like the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), which are well known for their voracious appetites and ability to consume almost all of a carcass, including bone. In this study, we comprehensively describe tooth wear in captive and wild devils to look for differences in the patterns and rate of wear between these environments. To do this we surveyed tooth condition in skulls from 182 wild and 114 captive devils for which age was estimated using canine over-eruption. We found the types of tooth wear documented were the same in captive and wild devils, but captive animals have less severe wear than wild devils of the same estimated age. There was no difference in the proportion of captive or wild individuals with broken canine or molar teeth; however, breakage occurred at a younger age in wild devils. Although not considered anomalous or harmful, this indicates a difference in the way teeth are being used and/or the foods consumed between captive and wild devils. We hypothesize how these results relate to differences in diet or behavior that may stem from their various feeding environments, for example, higher quality food (fresh, whole, and yet to be scavenged carcasses) provided to captive devils likely causes less wear. Further, we support management options that closely replicate wild diet items and behaviors suitable for a long-term insurance population.

SEROLOGIC SURVEY OF LEPTOSPIRA SPP. IN CAPTIVE ANIMALS FROM VERACRUZ, MEXICO.

Leptospirosis is the most common zoonotic disease worldwide and is considered endemic in countries with tropical climates. It is caused by 10 species of the Leptospira genus and by more than 275 serovars which can affect a wide range of vertebrates. In the Americas, 122 species of four classes of vertebrates have been reported to be infected or exposed to many Leptospira species. Many of these reports are from zoos and rehabilitation centers. Mexico has one single study that reported antibody titers against Leptospira in zoo animals. The purpose of this research was to identify the degree of exposure of some captive mammals and reptiles in Veracruz, a Mexican state with endemic leptospirosis, through microagglutination using 14 live strains of five Leptospira species. Sera samples were collected from 55 animals of 11 species from two classes (Mammalia and Reptilia), four orders (Primates, Artiodactyla, Carnivora, Crocodilia), and nine genera. The more prevalent serovars were Icterohaemorrhagiae and Tarassovi and the highest titers were reactive to the serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae with a value of 1: 51,200.

Developmental and family history-based analysis of congenital fused labia phenotype in the captive common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).

BACKGROUND: Congenital fused labia (CFL) is defined as a failure or significant delay in the opening of the juvenile sealed labia majora. This phenotype is known to be variably common in adult captive female marmosets but has never been investigated in detail before. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Here, we define, describe and quantify the variations in the degree of closure of the vulva in 122 captive marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) from 1.2 to 42 months old and include colony analysis. RESULTS: There was a negative correlation between the degree of labial fusion and animal age after prepubertal period (P < 0.05). CFL females had higher number CFL relatives (4.3 ± 0.6 vs 2.4 ± 0.5 for non-CFL, P < 0.05) and more external ancestors compared to non-CFL (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results therefore suggest that CFL phenotype is most likely associated with epigenetic effects induced by the captive environment and colony management strategy of extensive crossing of family lines to promote heterozygosity.

Inter-annual patterns of aggression and pair bonding in captive American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber).

Because zoos typically house animals for extended periods of time, longitudinal studies can play an important role in evaluating and optimizing animal care and management. For example, information on patterns of aggression and mating behavior across years can be used to monitor well-being, assess response to changes to group composition, and promote successful reproduction. Here, we report on patterns of aggression and pair bonding by American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) at the Audubon Zoo, New Orleans USA across 4 years (2012-2015), a period that included a simultaneous introduction and removal of individuals in 2014. At the population level, overall rates and social network indices of aggressive interactions were relatively stable over the study period, without a strong signal of the 2014 replacement event. At the individual level, flamingos exhibited a high degree of within-individual consistency in levels of aggression initiated (W = 0.530, P < 0.001), and received (W = 0.369, P = 0.042). In terms of pair bonds, females re-paired with the same individuals across years more frequently (between 58% and 100% from year to year) than they switched mates, and no bonds were established between pre-existing and introduced individuals. These findings indicate a high degree of stability in aggression and pair bonding behavior in this population of captive flamingos, at both the population and individual level. Longitudinal studies such as this one provide an opportunity to better our understanding of flamingos and other long-lived, group-living animals along with their management needs, especially in terms of maintaining social cohesion in captivity and improving captive breeding programs.

Review: Rethinking environmental enrichment as providing opportunities to acquire information.

Environmental enrichment, that is making the environment of animals more complex, was first designed to enhance the welfare and cognitive abilities of captive animals, and was more recently applied to farm animals. Enrichments can be sensory, physical, social, occupational, feeding-based, or a mix of these, with a view to improve animals' welfare. We posit that enrichments share the common factor of providing information to animals so that enrichment is all about providing the animal with a way to acquire information by interacting with the environment. Animals enjoy acquiring information, and the process of acquiring information acts in a way that enables them to better adapt to future environments. This reframed view of enrichment has several implications including prolonging the duration of exposure to an enrichment does not necessarily increase the impact of that enrichment, neutral and even slightly negative stimuli may still be enriching, complex and variable environments are enriching, and the more intensively an animal can engage with the environment, the more it will benefit from enrichments. These implications should be further explored by comprehensive re-analyses of findings from the enrichment literature and/or by dedicated experiments.

Comparative Analysis of How the Fecal Microbiota of Green-Winged Saltator (Saltator similis) Diverge among Animals Living in Captivity and in Wild Habitats.

The microbiota's alteration is an adaptive mechanism observed in wild animals facing high selection pressure, especially in captive environments. The objective of this study is to compare and predict the potential impact of habitat on the fecal bacterial community of Saltator similis, a songbird species that is a victim of illegal trafficking, living in two distinct habitats: wild and captivity. Nine wild and nine captive S. similis were sampled, and total bacterial DNA was obtained from the feces. Each DNA sample was employed to the amplification of the V4 region of the 16S rDNA following high-throughput sequencing. The most predominant phyla in all songbirds, irrespective of habitat, were Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteriota. Interestingly, a microbiota profile (phylogenetic and abundance relationship) related to habitat was identified. The genera "Candidatus Arthromitus", Acinetobacter, Kocuria, and Paracoccus were exclusively identified in animals living in captivity, which can be a potential biomarker associated with birds in captive environments. This study presents the first description of the fecal bacterial community composition of S. similis living two different lifestyles. Finally, our results suggest that the lifestyle of S. similis birds significantly impacts the composition of the fecal microbiota. The animals living in captivity showed dysbiosis in the microbiota, with some bacteria genera being indicated as biological markers of environmental behavior. Thus, the present research provides a new concept of life quality measure for songbirds.

Stress in wildlife: comparison of the stress response among domestic, captive, and free-ranging animals.

The stress response, which involves joint activity of the nervous and endocrine systems, is one of the basic adaptive mechanisms that ensures the survival of the individual. The activation of the sympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary axis, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis enables organisms to respond to endogenous and exogenous challenges. Repeated short-term stress leads to long-term stress, which disrupts physiological homeostasis. Unlike domestic animals, wild animals are not protected from environmental and weather influences or treated for diseases. In addition, climate change, habitat fragmentation and loss, and urban stressors (such as light, noise and chemical pollution; xenobiotics; traffic; and buildings) affect individual wildlife and populations. In this review, we have attempted to depict the magnitude of the stress response in wildlife and related domestic animals as well as in captive and free-ranging animals. The intensity of the stress response can be estimated by determining the concentration of glucocorticoids in body fluids, tissues, and excreta. A comparison of results from different studies suggests that domestic animals have lower fecal and hair glucocorticoid concentrations than related wild animals. Additionally, fecal and hair glucocorticoid concentrations in captive animals are higher than in free-ranging animals of the same species. As there are limited data on this topic, we cannot draw definitive conclusions about glucocorticoid concentration and stress response. Further studies are needed to clarify these issues.

Nuclear and Mitochondrial Data on Trichuris from Macaca fuscata Support Evidence of Host Specificity.

Whipworms are parasitic intestinal nematodes infecting mammals, and traditionally humans and other primates that have so far been considered infected by Trichuris trichiura. Recent molecular studies report a more complex scenario suggesting the presence of a species complex with several Trichuris taxa specifically infecting only one primate species as well as taxa able to infect a range of primate species. The systematics of the group is important for taxonomic inference, to estimate the relative zoonotic potential, and for conservation purposes. In fact, captive animals living in zoological gardens are usually infected by persistent monoxenous intestinal parasites. Here, two Japanese macaques living in the Bioparco Zoological Garden of Rome were found infected by Trichuris sp. Nematodes were characterized at the molecular level using nuclear (btub and 18S) and mitochondrial (16S and cytb) markers and then compared to Trichuris collected previously in the same location, and to other Trichuris infecting primates. Evidences from mitochondrial and nuclear markers allowed for the identification of Trichuris sp. specific to Macaca fuscata. Results obtained here also described a uniform taxonomic unit of Trichuris, separated but closely related to Trichuris trichiura, thus, emphasizing its zoonotic potential for workers and visitors.

Molecular characterization of Trichuris spp. from captive animals based on mitochondrial markers.

Monoxenous parasites may easily infect animals in captivity, and nematodes belonging to the genus Trichuris are commonly reported in zoological gardens worldwide. Infections in captive animals should be accurately monitored and the characterization of pathogens is highly advisable, as a tool to infer possible routes of intra- and interspecific transmission pathways and to assess the related zoonotic potential. Whipworms are usually identified on the basis of few morphological features of adults males and eggs and by an host-affiliation criterion. Given the strong morphological convergence of adaptive traits and the possible occurrence of hybridization and/or cross-infections events, the use of molecular methods is of great utility. Here, we analysed two partial mitochondrial loci, the cytochrome c oxidase I and the cytochrome b regions, in Trichuris spp. infecting four animal species hosted in the Bioparco Zoological Garden of Rome. Results from molecular systematics, compared to previous data, suggested that the five Trichuris taxa recovered were well separated, showing a significant degree of host affiliation (herbivorous, primates/swine and rodents/canids). The screw horn antelopes and the camels were infected with two variants of Trichuris ovis; Trichuris sp. similar to those observed in rodents from South America was infecting the Patagonian maras. Moreover, Trichuris from the ring-tailed lemur showed a great similarity to Trichuris infecting the Japanese macaque previously analysed from the same zoological garden, and clustering together with Trichuris trichiura, posing a potential zoonotic threat for visitors and workers.

Genetic diversity of pathogenic leptospires from wild, domestic and captive host species in Portugal.

Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease of worldwide distribution with a significant veterinary and public health impact. It is caused by pathogenic bacteria of the genus Leptospira. The availability of effective tools to accurately identify and type leptospires is of utmost importance for the diagnosis of the disease and for assessing its epidemiology. Several multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) approaches were described for the typing of worldwide isolates of Leptospira but an extensive agreement towards the adoption of a unique consensus scheme for this agent is still lacking. Most genotyped strains originate from Asian and South American countries, with a minority originating from Europe (being most countries represented only by one or a few isolates). The knowledge of the diversity of circulating leptospires is the key to understanding the disease transmission and its zoonotic implications. In this study, we revisited the taxonomy of several isolates of pathogenic Leptospira obtained from domestic, wild and captive animals in Portugal, between 1990 and 2012. A selection of these isolates was genotyped using two previously published MLST schemes. A total of seven distinct sequence types (STs) were detected among the Portuguese isolates with two STs representing L. borgpetersenii (ST149 and ST152), two STs representing L. kirschneri (ST117 and ST100) and three STs representing L. interrogans (ST17, ST24 and ST140). Global widespread (and maybe more virulent) Leptospira genotypes seem to circulate in Portugal, particularly the L. interrogans ST17 isolates which are associated with several outbreaks of leptospirosis among humans and animals in different regions of the world. This study contributes to the enrichment of the global MLST databases with a new set of allele and sequence type information also providing novel data on circulating Leptospira serovars in Portugal.

The Relevance of Operant Behavior in Conceptualizing the Psychological Well-Being of Captive Animals.

The term "psychological well-being" is used in reference to husbandry with animals in human care settings such as research, agriculture, and zoos. This article seeks to clarify and conceptualize the term based upon two approaches that draw from several bodies of literature: the experimental analysis of behavior, experimental psychology, animal welfare and husbandry, farm animal behavior, zoo husbandry, and ethology. One approach focuses on the presence of problem behavior such as stereotypies, depressive-like behavior, and aggression, and emphasizes the conditions under which aberrant behavior in animals under human care occurs. The second approach examines what might be considered wellness by emphasizing opportunities to engage with its environment, or the absence of such opportunities, even if problematic behavior is not exhibited. Here, access to an interactive environment is relatively limited so opportunities for operant (voluntary) behavior could be considered. Designing for operant behavior provides opportunities for variability in both behavior and outcomes. Operant behavior also provides control over the environment, a characteristic that has been a core assumption of well-being. The importance of interactions with one's environment is especially evident in observations that animals prefer opportunities to work for items necessary for sustenance, such as food, over having them delivered freely. These considerations raise the importance of operant behavior to psychological well-being, especially as benefits to animals under human care.

Where Are Zoos Going-or Are They Gone?

To some, zoos are prisons exploiting animals. In reality zoos range from bad to better. I make this distinction: A bad zoo makes animals work for it; a good zoo works for animals. Good zoos do effective conservation work and continually strive to improve exhibits, relevance to conservation, and inspiring public engagement for wildlife. Many zoos have improved enormously; the better ones being crucial in saving species that would have otherwise gone extinct. Nonetheless, for some people the mere word "zoo" carries impressions of old zoos, bad zoos, circuses, and theme-park shows that many find distasteful. Good zoos know they must innovate forward. As society grows increasingly estranged from nature and continues driving broad declines of wildlife, wild lands, and natural systems, the goal of zoos and every organization concerned with animal welfare should not be to separate humans from other animals, but to entangle all humans in nonhuman lives. Zoos of the next decades must become the first stage in bringing young people into life-long, engaged caring about animals. They could carry on that mission in their communities, in schools, in wild lands, as well as inside their gates. Without a strong public constituency, wild animals will not withstand continued human proliferation. Zoos and aquariums must innovate toward being a crucial force abetting the continued existence of wildness on Earth. Zoos of the future must become uplifting places of respect, rescue, enhancement, conservation, and public engagement.

Mycobacterium bovis in a European bison (Bison bonasus) raises concerns about tuberculosis in Brazilian captive wildlife populations: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis is an important worldwide zoonosis and has been reported to cause clinical disease in several animal species, including captive wildlife. This report describes a case of M. bovis infection in a European bison from a Brazilian zoo and compiles a number of literature reports that raise concern regarding tuberculosis among captive wildlife in Brazil. CASE PRESENTATION: A 13 year-old captive-born male bison (Bison bonasus) from a Brazilian zoo began presenting weight loss, diarrhea and respiratory symptoms, which inevitably led to his death. At the animal's necropsy, inspection of the thoracic and abdominal cavities revealed multiple enlarged lymph nodes, ranging from 4 to 10 cm, and pulmonary nodules containing caseous masses with firm white materials consistent with mineralization. Histopathology findings showed a significant amount of acid-alcohol resistant bacilli compatible with Mycobacterium spp. Specimens from lymph nodes and lungs were cultured on Petragnani and Stonebrink media, and specific PCR assays of the bacterial isolate identified it as M. bovis. CONCLUSION: The European bison reported herein died from a severe form of disseminated tuberculosis caused by M. bovis. A review of the available literature indicates possible widespread occurrence of clinical disease caused by M. bovis or M. tuberculosis affecting multiple animal species in Brazilian wildlife-related institutions. These likely underestimated numbers raise concern regarding the control of the disease in captive animal populations from Brazil.

Haemoparasites in captive birds at Uberlândia zoo, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil

Haemoparasites are one of the most important groups of bird parasites, with emphasis on the genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon and Trypanosoma. Zoos sustain different wild animals and are valuable tools for the education and conservation of species. The conditions of captive animals differ from wild animals, as zoos have sufficient availability of food throughout the year, protection against predators and veterinary care for animals. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of haemoparasites in captive birds of the Sabiá Municipal Park Zoo, municipality of Uberlândia, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from the alveolar vein puncture to make blood swabs. This material was fixed with methanol, stained by the GIEMSA technique and examined under optical microscope. A total of 46 birds (19 species) were analyzed and only three individuals (6.52%) were positive for Plasmodium sp. The hosts were Pavo cristatus and Tyto furcata. This low positivity was expected, since haemoparasites do not generally present high infection rates among birds. Even if a parasite is not pathogenic for a given species, these individuals are important reservoirs for the infection of more vulnerable species. Differences in the prevalence and intensity of infection of these hosts depend on the virulence of the parasite, ability of the host to respond to such infections and vector availability. This low prevalence rate suggests a good health status of the captive birds in the study area.

Granulomatous pneumonia due to pythiosis in captive South American coatis (Nasua nasua) / Pneumonia granulomatosa decorrente de pitiose em quatis sul-americanos (Nasua nasua) de cativeiro

Pythiosis is an emerging infectious disease affecting captive and free-ranging wild animals. We report granulomatous pneumonia due to Pythium insidiosum in two South American coatis (Nasua nasua), who were found dead without any clinical records. Severe granulomatous pneumonia associated with pleural effusion was revealed in the necropsy. Microscopically, variably sized granulomas and pyogranulomas presented negative hyphae profiles at the periphery of their necrotic cores. Grocott methenamine silver stain highlighted these structures, and immunostain (anti- P. insidiosum) was strongly positive. Molecular analysis by polymerase chain reaction amplified P. insidiosum specific DNA. These findings characterized P. insidiosum as a cause of granulomatous pneumonia in coatis and proved that pythiosis needs to be considered in the differential diagnosis of respiratory diseases affecting this species in endemic areas.(AU)

A pitiose é uma doença infecciosa emergente que afeta animais silvestres de cativeiro e em vida livre. Reportamos dois casos de pneumonia granulomatosa decorrentes da infecção por Pythium Insidiosum em quatis sul-americanos (Nasua nasua), que foram encontrados mortos sem apresentar nenhum quadro clínico prévio. Pneumonia granulomatosa severa associada a efusão pleural foi observada durante a necropsia. Na microscopia, foram observados múltiplos granulomas e piogranulomas de tamanhos variados que continham imagens negativas de hifas na periferia de seus centros necróticos. A coloração de metenamina de prata (Grocott) evidenciou estas estruturas, e a imunomarcação (anti-P. insidiosum) foi fortemente positiva. A análise molecular pela reação de polimerase em cadeia amplificou o DNA específico do P. insidiousum. Estes achados caracterizaram o P. insidiosum como a causa da pneumonia granulomatosa nos quatis e provou que a pitiose deve ser considerada um diagnostico diferencial para outras doenças respiratórias que afetam esta espécie.(AU)

Enriching tortoises: assessing color preference.

Environmental enrichment is a principle that is used to enhance the quality of care for nonhuman animals in captivity. To achieve this, it is necessary to understand the animal's needs. This study focused on color preference to provide food stimuli as a source of environmental enrichment for the tortoise, Chelonoidis denticulata. During this study, the stimuli green-, blue-, yellow-, and red-colored bananas and plaster blocks were randomly offered to the tortoises. Analysis of the data showed that the tortoises had a preference for the stimuli dyed with colors red and yellow over the other presented colors. It was possible to conclude that presenting food in different colors stimulated the animals to evaluate their environment and make choices in relation to their color preference. Thus, this experiment introduced an element of choice into their lives, beyond identifying color food preferences for the tortoises. The element of choice is known to be important to animal welfare.

Social Networks and Welfare in Future Animal Management.

It may become advantageous to keep human-managed animals in the social network groups to which they have adapted. Data concerning the social networks of farm animal species and their ancestors are scarce but essential to establishing the importance of a natural social network for farmed animal species. Social Network Analysis (SNA) facilitates the characterization of social networking at group, subgroup and individual levels. SNA is currently used for modeling the social behavior and management of wild animals and social welfare of zoo animals. It has been recognized for use with farm animals but has yet to be applied for management purposes. Currently, the main focus is on cattle, because in large groups (poultry), recording of individuals is expensive and the existence of social networks is uncertain due to on-farm restrictions. However, in many cases, a stable social network might be important to individual animal fitness, survival and welfare. For instance, when laying hens are not too densely housed, simple networks may be established. We describe here small social networks in horses, brown bears, laying hens and veal calves to illustrate the importance of measuring social networks among animals managed by humans. Emphasis is placed on the automatic measurement of identity, location, nearest neighbors and nearest neighbor distance for management purposes. It is concluded that social networks are important to the welfare of human-managed animal species and that welfare management based on automatic recordings will become available in the near future.