Direct evidence of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) as intermediate host of Toxoplasma gondii through isolation of viable strains.

Toxoplasma gondii causes lifelong infection in most definitive and intermediate hosts. Clinical cases of toxoplasmosis in captive cheetahs have been reported. However, there are few reports of viable T. gondii strains isolated from cheetahs. Here, T. gondii infection was investigated using molecular and serological assays in cheetahs from China. Modified agglutination test (MAT) (cut-off: 1:25) indicated that all six examined cheetahs (n = 6) showed T. gondii antibodies. Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in three out of five cheetahs. Two viable T. gondii strains were isolated from the striated muscles of two cheetahs using mice bioassay. They were designated as TgCheetahCHn1 and TgCheetahCHn2. Genetic characterization of DNA derived from tachyzoites was performed using RFLP-PCR of 10 markers. Toxoplasma gondii TgCheetahCHn1 is ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #319, and the alleles of ROP18/ROP5 types were 3/7. TgCheetahCHn2 is ToxoDB genotype #9, and the alleles of ROP18/ROP5 were 3/6. The average survival time of TgCheetahCHn1-infected Swiss mice was 22 ± 1 days (n = 23), and the mice did not have detectable T. gondii-specific antibodies until 117 ± 30 days post-inoculation (n = 8), therefore, TgCheetahCHn1 had intermediate virulence. TgCheetahCHn2 was avirulent for Swiss mice. Few brain tissue cysts (0-50) were observed in the mice inoculated with TgCheetahCHn1 or TgCheetahCHn2. The results provide direct evidence of cheetah as intermediate host of T. gondii.

Can smaller predators expand their prey base through killing juveniles? The influence of prey demography and season on prey selection for cheetahs and lions.

Smaller predators may overcome body size restrictions on their prey base by selecting for juveniles of larger prey species. However, traditional prey selection models ignore demographic classes within prey species. We refined these models for two predators with contrasting body sizes and hunting strategies, by including seasonal consumption and availability of prey demographic classes. We predicted that cheetahs would select for smaller neonate and juvenile prey especially of larger species, while lions would select for larger, adult prey. We further predicted seasonal diet shifts in cheetah, but not lion. We recorded species-specific demographic class prey use (kills) via direct observation and GPS cluster of cheetahs and lions fitted with GPS collars. Species-specific demographic class prey availability was estimated from monthly driven transects, and species-specific demographic class prey preferences were estimated. The availability of prey demographic classes varied seasonally. Cheetahs preferred neonates, juveniles, and sub-adults during the wet season, but adults and juveniles during the dry season. Lions preferred adult prey irrespective of season, with sub-adults, juveniles, and neonates killed relative to their abundance. This confirms that traditional prey preference models do not adequately account for demographic-specific prey preference. This is particularly important for smaller predators, like cheetahs, that focus on smaller prey but can expand their prey base by killing juveniles of larger species. For these smaller predators, prey availability will vary strongly seasonally, making them more vulnerable to processes that influence prey reproduction, like global change.

Communication hubs of an asocial cat are the source of a human-carnivore conflict and key to its solution.

Human-wildlife conflicts occur worldwide. Although many nonlethal mitigation solutions are available, they rarely use the behavioral ecology of the conflict species to derive effective and long-lasting solutions. Here, we use a long-term study with 106 GPS-collared free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to demonstrate how new insights into the socio-spatial organization of this species provide the key for such a solution. GPS-collared territory holders marked and defended communication hubs (CHs) in the core area of their territories. The CHs/territories were distributed in a regular pattern across the landscape such that they were not contiguous with each other but separated by a surrounding matrix. They were kept in this way by successive territory holders, thus maintaining this overdispersed distribution. The CHs were also visited by nonterritorial cheetah males and females for information exchange, thus forming hotspots of cheetah activity and presence. We hypothesized that the CHs pose an increased predation risk to young calves for cattle farmers in Namibia. In an experimental approach, farmers shifted cattle herds away from the CHs during the calving season. This drastically reduced their calf losses by cheetahs because cheetahs did not follow the herds but instead preyed on naturally occurring local wildlife prey in the CHs. This implies that in the cheetah system, there are "problem areas," the CHs, rather than "problem individuals." The incorporation of the behavioral ecology of conflict species opens promising areas to search for solutions in other conflict species with nonhomogenous space use.

Agreement of high-definition oscillometry at two cuff locations with invasively measured arterial blood pressures in anaesthetised cheetahs.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the agreement between high-definition oscillometry (HDO) used on the metatarsus or tail base with invasive arterial blood pressures measured in the dorsal pedal artery in anaesthetised cheetahs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: A group of 13 captive adult cheetahs. METHODS: Cheetahs were immobilised with medetomidine (32-45 µg kg-1) and tiletamine/zolazepam (0.93-1.39 mg kg-1) administered intramuscularly, and anaesthesia was maintained with either isoflurane in oxygen or continuous propofol infusion. Invasive blood pressure was measured via a 20 gauge intra-arterial catheter in the dorsal pedal artery in the metatarsus and used as a reference method for pressures simultaneously estimated using HDO on the contralateral metatarsus and tail base. Bland-Altman plots (for repeated measurements) and criteria defined by the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) were used to compare agreement according to the anatomical location of the cuff, the anaesthetic maintenance agent and magnitude of the blood pressure. RESULTS: A total of 147 paired measurements were obtained with HDO on the metatarsus and 135 on the tail. Agreement with invasive pressures was better when HDO was used on the tail (rather than on the metatarsus) with all ACVIM criteria being met. Mean bias (a positive bias meaning that HDO overestimated the invasively measured pressures) ± standard deviation of differences for systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressures were -7.0 ± 13.9, 4.2 ±12.1 and 4.6 ±11.2 mmHg, respectively, for HDO on the tail, and -11.9 ±15.1, 2.8 ±16.5 and 2.1 ±13.2 mmHg, respectively, for HDO on the metatarsus. Agreement was better during isoflurane anaesthesia than propofol, and at lower blood pressures than at higher. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: When used on the tail base of anaesthetised cheetahs, HDO met the ACVIM validation criteria for a noninvasive device, as compared to invasively measured pressures in the dorsal pedal artery.

Multi-UAV Cooperative Trajectory Planning Based on the Modified Cheetah Optimization Algorithm.

The capacity for autonomous functionality serves as the fundamental ability and driving force for the cross-generational upgrading of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). With the disruptive transformation of artificial intelligence technology, autonomous trajectory planning based on intelligent algorithms has emerged as a key technique for enhancing UAVs' capacity for autonomous behavior, thus holding significant research value. To address the challenges of UAV trajectory planning in complex 3D environments, this paper proposes a multi-UAV cooperative trajectory-planning method based on a Modified Cheetah Optimization (MCO) algorithm. Firstly, a spatiotemporal cooperative trajectory planning model is established, incorporating UAV-cooperative constraints and performance constraints. Evaluation criteria, including fuel consumption, altitude, and threat distribution field cost functions, are introduced. Then, based on its parent Cheetah Optimization (CO) algorithm, the MCO algorithm incorporates a logistic chaotic mapping strategy and an adaptive search agent strategy, thereby improving the home-returning mechanism. Finally, extensive simulation experiments are conducted using a considerably large test dataset containing functions with the following four characteristics: unimodal, multimodal, separable, and inseparable. Meanwhile, a strategy for dimensionality reduction searching is employed to solve the problem of autonomous trajectory planning in real-world scenarios. The results of a conducted simulation demonstrate that the MCO algorithm outperforms several other related algorithms, showcasing smaller trajectory costs, a faster convergence speed, and stabler performance. The proposed algorithm exhibits a certain degree of correctness, effectiveness, and advancement in solving the problem of multi-UAV cooperative trajectory planning.

Genomic analyses show extremely perilous conservation status of African and Asiatic cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

We live in a world characterized by biodiversity loss and global environmental change. The extinction of large carnivores can have ramifying effects on ecosystems like an uncontrolled increase in wild herbivores, which in turn can have knock-on impacts on vegetation regeneration and communities. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) serve important ecosystem functions as apex predators; yet, they are quickly heading towards an uncertain future. Threatened by habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict and illegal trafficking, there are only approximately 7100 individuals remaining in nature. We present the most comprehensive genome-wide analysis of cheetah phylogeography and conservation genomics to date, assembling samples from nearly the entire current and past species' range. We show that their phylogeography is more complex than previously thought, and that East African cheetahs (A. j. raineyi) are genetically distinct from Southern African individuals (A. j. jubatus), warranting their recognition as a distinct subspecies. We found strong genetic differentiation between all classically recognized subspecies, thus refuting earlier findings that cheetahs show only little differentiation. The strongest differentiation was observed between the Asiatic and all the African subspecies. We detected high inbreeding in the Critically Endangered Iranian (A. j. venaticus) and North-western (A. j. hecki) subspecies, and show that overall cheetahs, along with snow leopards, have the lowest genome-wide heterozygosity of all the big cats. This further emphasizes the cheetah's perilous conservation status. Our results provide novel and important information on cheetah phylogeography that can support evidence-based conservation policy decisions to help protect this species. This is especially relevant in light of ongoing and proposed translocations across subspecies boundaries, and the increasing threats of illegal trafficking.

Sublingual papillomas of cheetahs in southern Africa.

Nine distinct papillomaviruses (Lambdapapillomavirus) have been described in domestic and nondomestic cats, but not in cheetahs. These viruses have been associated with cutaneous papillomas or plaques, bowenoid in situ carcinomas, feline cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), feline sarcoids, and oral (often sublingual) papillomas. Fourteen cheetahs from the AfriCat foundation (Namibia) and one from the Ann van Dyk Cheetah center (South Africa) presented with sublingual lesions reminiscent of sublingual papillomas. Two animals were biopsied and the histopathology revealed benign proliferative epithelial lesions with prominent thickening of the overlying squamous epithelium. Throughout the squamous epithelial layers were cells with nuclear enlargement, irregularity of the nuclear membranes and cell contours, focal hyperchromasia of the nuclei, and perinuclear halos, reminiscent of a virus-associated process as seen in papillomavirus infections. Thirteen more cheetahs were sampled and the tissue snap frozen for molecular characterization. Amplification and sequencing of the papillomavirus L1, E6, E7, and E1 gene regions was achieved with modified primers. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses revealed all 15 cheetah papilloma samples were 99.99% genetically similar and closely related to, but genetically distinct from any known felinepapillomaviruses. All cheetahs were FIV and FeLV negative. The results suggest the samples identified in this study can be considered a previously undescribed or novel feline papillomavirus and the authors propose "Acinonyx jubatus papillomavirus type 1" (AjPV-1), within the Lambdapapillomavirus 1 genus (Family: Papillomaviridae).

Exploiting genomic synteny in Felidae: cross-species genome alignments and SNV discovery can aid conservation management.

BACKGROUND: While recent advances in genomics has enabled vast improvements in the quantification of genome-wide diversity and the identification of adaptive and deleterious alleles in model species, wildlife and non-model species have largely not reaped the same benefits. This has been attributed to the resources and infrastructure required to develop essential genomic datasets such as reference genomes. In the absence of a high-quality reference genome, cross-species alignments can provide reliable, cost-effective methods for single nucleotide variant (SNV) discovery. Here, we demonstrated the utility of cross-species genome alignment methods in gaining insights into population structure and functional genomic features in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatas), snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), relative to the domestic cat (Felis catus). RESULTS: Alignment of big cats to the domestic cat reference assembly yielded nearly complete sequence coverage of the reference genome. From this, 38,839,061 variants in cheetah, 15,504,143 in snow leopard and 13,414,953 in Sumatran tiger were discovered and annotated. This method was able to delineate population structure but limited in its ability to adequately detect rare variants. Enrichment analysis of fixed and species-specific SNVs revealed insights into adaptive traits, evolutionary history and the pathogenesis of heritable diseases. CONCLUSIONS: The high degree of synteny among felid genomes enabled the successful application of the domestic cat reference in high-quality SNV detection. The datasets presented here provide a useful resource for future studies into population dynamics, evolutionary history and genetic and disease management of big cats. This cross-species method of variant discovery provides genomic context for identifying annotated gene regions essential to understanding adaptive and deleterious variants that can improve conservation outcomes.

Unlocking the potential of a validated single nucleotide polymorphism array for genomic monitoring of trade in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are listed as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. Threats include loss of habitat, human-wildlife conflict and illegal wildlife trade. In South Africa, the export of wild cheetah is a restricted activity under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), however, limited legal trade is permitted of animals born to captive parents. To effectively monitor the legal and illegal trade in South Africa, it was thus essential to develop a validated molecular test. Here, we designed a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array for cheetah from Double Digest Restriction Associated DNA sequencing data for individual identification and parentage testing. In order to validate the array, unrelated individuals and 16 family groups consisting of both parents and one to three offspring were genotyped using the Applied Biosystems™ QuantStudio™ 12K Flex Real-Time PCR System. In addition, parentage assignments were compared to microsatellite data. Cross-species amplification was tested in various felids and cheetah sub-species in order to determine the utility of the SNP array in other species. We obtained successful genotyping results for 218 SNPs in cheetah (A. j. jubatus) with an optimal DNA input concentration ranging from 10 to 30 ng/µl. The combination of SNPs had a higher resolving power for individual identification compared to microsatellites and provided high assignment accuracy in known pedigrees. Cross-species amplification in other felids was determined to be limited. However, the SNP array demonstrated a clear genetic discrimination of two cheetah subspecies tested here. We conclude that the described SNP array is suitable for accurate parentage assignment and provides an important traceability tool for forensic investigations of cheetah trade.

Using Machine Learning for Remote Behaviour Classification-Verifying Acceleration Data to Infer Feeding Events in Free-Ranging Cheetahs.

Behavioural studies of elusive wildlife species are challenging but important when they are threatened and involved in human-wildlife conflicts. Accelerometers (ACCs) and supervised machine learning algorithms (MLAs) are valuable tools to remotely determine behaviours. Here we used five captive cheetahs in Namibia to test the applicability of ACC data in identifying six behaviours by using six MLAs on data we ground-truthed by direct observations. We included two ensemble learning approaches and a probability threshold to improve prediction accuracy. We used the model to then identify the behaviours in four free-ranging cheetah males. Feeding behaviours identified by the model and matched with corresponding GPS clusters were verified with previously identified kill sites in the field. The MLAs and the two ensemble learning approaches in the captive cheetahs achieved precision (recall) ranging from 80.1% to 100.0% (87.3% to 99.2%) for resting, walking and trotting/running behaviour, from 74.4% to 81.6% (54.8% and 82.4%) for feeding behaviour and from 0.0% to 97.1% (0.0% and 56.2%) for drinking and grooming behaviour. The model application to the ACC data of the free-ranging cheetahs successfully identified all nine kill sites and 17 of the 18 feeding events of the two brother groups. We demonstrated that our behavioural model reliably detects feeding events of free-ranging cheetahs. This has useful applications for the determination of cheetah kill sites and helping to mitigate human-cheetah conflicts.

Novel Techniques for Detection of Mycobacterium bovis Infection in a Cheetah.

In South Africa, bovine tuberculosis threatens some of Africa's most iconic wildlife species, including the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). The lack of antemortem diagnostic tests for this species strongly hinders conservation efforts. We report use of antemortem and postmortem diagnostic assays to detect Mycobacterium bovis infection in a cheetah.

Chemical structures of oligosaccharides in milks of the American black bear (Ursus americanus americanus) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

The milk oligosaccharides were studied for two species of the Carnivora: the American black bear (Ursus americanus, family Ursidae, Caniformia), and the cheetah, (Acinonyx jubatus, family Felidae, Feliformia). Lactose was the most dominant saccharide in cheetah milk, while this was a minor saccharide and milk oligosaccharides predominated over lactose in American black bear milk. The structures of 8 neutral saccharides from American black bear milk were found to be Gal(ß1-4)Glc (lactose), Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (2'-fucosyllactose), Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (B-tetrasaccharide), Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]Glc (B-pentasaccharide), Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (difucosyl lacto-N-neotetraose), Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monogalactosyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neotetraose) and Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (Galili pentasaccharide). Structures of 5 acidic saccharides were also identified in black bear milk: Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (3'-sialyllactose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3){Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-6)}Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), and Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3){Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-6)}Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl difucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose). A notable feature of some of these milk oligosaccharides is the presence of B-antigen (Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal), α-Gal epitope (Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc(NAc)) and Lewis x (Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc) structures within oligosaccharides. By comparison to American black bear milk, cheetah milk had a much smaller array of oligosaccharides. Two cheetah milks contained Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), while another cheetah milk did not, but contained Gal(ß1-6)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (6'-galactosyllactose) and Gal(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (3'-galactosyllactose). Two cheetah milks contained Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (lacto-N-neohexaose), and one cheetah milk contained Gal(ß1-4)Glc-3'-O-sulfate. Neu5Ac(α2-8)Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (disialyllactose) was the only sialyl oligosaccharide identified in cheetah milk. The heterogeneity of milk oligosaccharides was found between both species with respect of the presence/absence of B-antigen and Lewis x. The variety of milk oligosaccharides was much greater in the American black bear than in the cheetah. The ratio of milk oligosaccharides-to-lactose was lower in cheetah (1:1-1:2) than American black bear (21:1) which is likely a reflection of the requirement for a dietary supply of N-acetyl neuraminic acid (sialic acid), in altricial ursids compared to more precocial felids, given the role of these oligosaccharides in the synthesis of brain gangliosides and the polysialic chains on neural cell adhesion.

Context dependency of top-down, bottom-up and density-dependent influences on cheetah demography.

Research on drivers of demographic rates has mostly focused on top predators and their prey, and comparatively less research has considered the drivers of mesopredator demography. Of those limited studies, most focused on top-down effects of apex predators on mesopredator population dynamics, whereas studies investigating alternative mechanisms are less common. In this study, we tested hypotheses related to top-down, bottom-up and density-dependent regulation of demographic rates in an imperilled mesopredator, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). We used a 25-year dataset of lion density, cheetah density and prey density from the Mun-Ya-Wana Conservancy in South Africa and assessed the effects of top-down, bottom-up and density-dependent drivers on cheetah survival and reproduction. In contrast to the top-down and bottom-up predictions, both adult and juvenile cheetahs experienced the lowest survival during months with high prey densities and low lion densities. We observed support only for a density-dependent response in juvenile cheetahs, where they had a higher probability of reaching independence during times with low cheetah density and low prey density. We did not identify any strong drivers of litter size. Collectively, our results indicate that high apex predator abundance might not always have negative effects on mesopredator populations, and suggest that context dependency in top-down, bottom-up and density-dependent factors may regulate demographic rates of cheetahs and other mesopredators. Our results highlight the complexities of population-level drivers of cheetah demographic rates and the importance of considering multiple hypotheses of mesopredator population regulation.

Interspecies comparison of the residue levels and profiles of persistent organic pollutants in terrestrial top predators.

Serum samples from three species of living terrestrial top predators were analysed for six groups of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The study included three carnivore species: lion (Panthera leo), hyena (Hyena brunnea) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). All samples were collected from healthy living animals between 2004 and 2005. Most of the samples (wild lions (n = 50) and hyenas (n = 11)) were collected from various locations within the Kruger National Park and Addo National Park (South Africa), while captive lions (n = 6) and cheetahs (n = 3) were collected from the Antwerp Zoo (Belgium). In general, relatively low levels of POPs were found in the studied species, varying widely within species and locations. Median concentrations of POPs were higher in captive lions (PCBs: 505 pg/mL; DDTs: 270 pg/mL; HCHs: 72 pg/mL; HCB: 34 pg/mL; CHLs: 24 pg/mL; PBDEs: 8 pg/mL) compared to wild lions (DDTs: 274 pg/mL; HCHs: 44 pg/mL; CHLs: 7.9 pg/mL; PCBs: 2.1 pg/mL; HCB: < LOQ; PBDEs: < LOQ). In the wild animals, POPs accumulated in the following order: DDTs > HCHs > CHLs > HCB > PCBs > PBDEs, while in the captive animals, the order was: PCBs > DDTs > CHLs > HCHs > HCB > PBDEs, suggesting differences in the diet of these animals. Furthermore, wild hyena contained significantly higher (p < 0.05) median levels of POPs compared to wild lions, possibly reflecting differences in metabolic capacity and/or feeding habits, together with an uneven distribution of POPs in the area where the animals lived. No previous data are available to compare for similar terrestrial top predators, such as lion, hyena and cheetah. To our knowledge, this is first study on POPs in these three species. The low POP levels found in this study were several orders of magnitude lower than those for other carnivore species, such as polar bears, grizzly bears, brown bears and wolves worldwide. The present study has revealed the need for expanding research and monitoring on occurrence, levels and disposition of POPs in the top predators of the terrestrial environment.

SINGLE PORT LAPAROSCOPIC FALCIFORM LIGAMENT COLLECTION IN A CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS).

A single incision laparoscopic system (SILS) was used to remove the falciform ligament of an adult male cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) during routine diagnostic liver biopsy. Adipose tissue isolated from the falciform ligament was used to establish a mesenchymal stem cell culture. The use of a SILS port for liver biopsy and falciform ligament collection allowed for a large amount of fat to be collected from a small surgical incision and rapid postoperative recovery. This case expands the use of the single incision laparoscopy surgical technique beyond reproductive sterilization procedures in large cats.

FELINE HERPESVIRUS INFECTION IN FOUR CAPTIVE CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS) POSTVACCINATION.

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are particularly susceptible to feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1). Recommendations for preventive health care in cheetahs include vaccination against FHV-1 using killed and modified live virus (MLV) vaccines. Although MLV vaccines tend to induce a more robust immune response than killed vaccines, they can induce disease. This case series details an FHV-1 outbreak in four adult cheetahs following the use of MLV vaccine in one of them. All four cheetahs developed severe FHV-1 clinical signs and were euthanized. Clinical signs included depression, anorexia, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, sneezing, and ulcerative dermatitis. Herpesvirus infection was diagnosed using history, clinical signs, polymerase chain reaction, and histologic evaluation. The timeline of events suggests the MLV vaccine was the inciting cause, although this was not conclusively proven. Outcome of this case suggests that when considering MLV vaccines for cheetahs, careful risk and benefit discussions are merited.

Sex and species differences of stress markers in sympatric cheetahs and leopards in Namibia.

Physiological stress markers may provide valuable insight for our understanding of costs of given life-history strategies or of wildlife health condition, most importantly in case of threatened species. In the last decade, there has been growing interest in the ecological relevance of cellular oxidative stress, which would provide complimentary information to that obtained by the classic analyses of glucocorticoid hormones. In this study, we analysed the sex and species variation of five blood-based markers of oxidative status, both molecular oxidative damage and antioxidant protection, in sympatric cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) living on Namibian farmlands. Both these terrestrial carnivores are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We found that female cheetahs had significantly higher serum reactive oxygen metabolites of non-protein origin and lower glutathione peroxidase activity in whole blood than both male and female leopards and male cheetahs. We also found that cheetahs and leopards differed in the association between the two antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. Correlations among oxidative status markers were stronger in female cheetahs than leopards or male cheetahs. Our results suggest that female cheetahs are more sensitive to local sources of stress. Our work did not corroborate the assumption that two species with different life histories consistently differ in key physiological traits.

Evaluation of butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine in captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) immobilization.

OBJECTIVE: The butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine fixed-dose combination (BAM, respectively, 30-12-12 mg mL-1) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone-atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, clinical trial. ANIMALS: Twelve cheetahs (six males and six females, weighing 37-57 kg) housed in enclosures, were immobilized at Hoedspruit Endangered Species Centre in the Republic of South Africa. METHODS: BAM volume dose rate was 0.009-0.014 mL kg-1 (mean ± standard deviation 0.010 ± 0.001 mL kg-1). Total dose in all animals was 0.5 mL. The actual doses were as follows: butorphanol (0.29 ± 0.04 mg kg-1), azaperone (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg-1) and medetomidine (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg-1). Physiologic variables and quality of immobilization were recorded every 5 minutes beginning at 15-20 minutes after darting. Arterial blood samples were collected three times at 20, 30 and 40 minutes after darting from all animals for analysis of blood oxygenation and acid-base status. RESULTS: The inductions were calm and smooth and mean induction time was 4.0 ± 1.1 minutes. Heart rate (50 ± 9 beats minute-1) and respiratory frequency (20 ± 3 breaths minute-1) were stable throughout immobilization. The recovery time after reversing with naltrexone and atipamezole was 9.1 ± 3.6 minutes. CONCLUSIONS: and clinical relevance BAM proved to be a reliable and cardiovascular stable drug combination for immobilization of cheetahs.

INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE, TEAR PRODUCTION, AND OCULAR BIOMETRY IN HEALTHY ADULT CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS).

Schirmer tear test (STT), intraocular pressure (IOP), and ocular biometry were measured in 58 healthy cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) between the ages of 2 and 14 yr in two captive groups. During routine health examination under immobilization, each animal underwent ophthalmic examination including STT, IOP, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, indirect ophthalmoscopy, and ocular ultrasonography. Mean ± SD values for STT and IOP were 13.58 ± 5.29 mm/min and 31.40 ± 5.01 mm Hg, respectively. The time between immobilization and examination significantly influenced both STT and IOP measurements. For IOP measurements, a significant group effect was also demonstrated, possibly due to the different anesthetic drug combinations used. Mean ± SD values for biometry were as follows: globe length (32.73 ± 1.74 mm), lens thickness (7.25 ± 1.09 mm), anterior chamber (8.54 ± 1.21 mm), and posterior segment (16.31 ± 2.06 mm). Surprisingly, all of the biometry measurements differed significantly between the two groups. Establishing STT, IOP, and biometric reference values is important for evaluating the ocular health status of the species. These reference values will assist veterinarians working with cheetahs to perform a full and informed ophthalmic examination.

Fatal Tickborne Phlebovirus Infection in Captive Cheetahs, Japan.

Two captive cheetahs from a zoo in Japan died of a severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome-like illness. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus, an endemic tickborne phlebovirus, was detected systemically with secretion of infectious viruses into the saliva. These cases highlight the risk for exposure of captive animals to endemic arthropodborne pathogens.