'Beyond Li-ion technology'-a status review.

Li-ion battery is currently considered to be the most proven technology for energy storage systems when it comes to the overall combination of energy, power, cyclability and cost. However, there are continuous expectations for cost reduction in large-scale applications, especially in electric vehicles and grids, alongside growing concerns over safety, availability of natural resources for lithium, and environmental remediation. Therefore, industry and academia have consequently shifted their focus towards 'beyond Li-ion technologies'. In this respect, other non-Li-based alkali-ion/polyvalent-ion batteries, non-Li-based all solid-state batteries, fluoride-ion/ammonium-ion batteries, redox-flow batteries, sand batteries and hydrogen fuel cells etc. are becoming potential cost-effective alternatives. While there has been notable swift advancement across various materials, chemistries, architectures, and applications in this field, a comprehensive overview encompassing high-energy 'beyond Li-ion' technologies, along with considerations of commercial viability, is currently lacking. Therefore, in this review article, a rationalized approach is adopted to identify notable 'post-Li' candidates. Their pros and cons are comprehensively presented by discussing the fundamental principles in terms of material characteristics, relevant chemistries, and architectural developments that make a good high-energy 'beyond Li' storage system. Furthermore, a concise summary outlining the primary challenges of each system is provided, alongside the potential strategies being implemented to mitigate these issues. Additionally, the extent to which these strategies have positively influenced the performance of these 'post-Li' technologies is discussed.

Efficiency Analysis of Powertrain for Internal Combustion Engine and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Tractor According to Agricultural Operations.

As interest in eco-friendly work vehicles grows, research on the powertrains of eco-friendly tractors has increased, including research on the development of eco-friendly vehicles (tractors) using hydrogen fuel cell power packs and batteries. However, batteries require a long time to charge and have a short operating time due to their low energy efficiency compared with hydrogen fuel cell power packs. Therefore, recent studies have focused on the development of tractors using hydrogen fuel cell power packs; however, there is a lack of research on powertrain performance analysis considering actual working conditions. To evaluate vehicle performance, an actual load measurement during agricultural operation must be conducted. The objective of this study was to conduct an efficiency analysis of powertrains according to their power source using data measured during agricultural operations. A performance evaluation with respect to efficiency was performed through comparison and an analysis with internal combustion engine tractors of the same level. The specifications of the transmission for hydrogen fuel cell and engine tractors were used in this study. The power loss and efficiency of the transmission were calculated using ISO 14179-1 equations, as shown below. Plow tillage and rotary tillage operations were conducted for data measurement. The measurement system consists of four components. The engine data load measurement was calculated using the vehicle's controller area network (CAN) data, the axle load was measured using an axle torque meter and proximity sensors, and fuel consumption was measured using the sensor installed on the fuel line. The calculated capacities, considering the engine's fuel efficiency for plow and rotary tillage operations, were 131.2 and 175.1 kWh, respectively. The capacity of the required power, considering the powertrain's efficiency for hydrogen fuel cell tractors with respect to plow and rotary tillage operations, was calculated using the efficiency of the motor, inverter, and power pack, and 51.3 and 62.9 kWh were the values obtained, respectively. Considering these factors, the engine exhibited an efficiency of about 47.9% compared with the power pack in the case of plow tillage operations, and the engine exhibited an efficiency of about 29.3% in the case of rotary tillage operations. A hydrogen fuel cell tractor is considered suitable for high-efficiency and eco-friendly vehicles because it can operate on eco-friendly power sources while providing the advantages of a motor.

The impact of fuel cell vehicles deployment on road transport greenhouse gas emissions through 2050: Evidence from 15 G20 countries.

As global concern over the negative impacts of global warming, primarily caused by using passenger vehicles (PVs), the transition to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) is an essential alternative for reducing greenhouse (GHG) emissions. This research employs a bottom-up approach to analyze road vehicle fleet's GHG emissions. We calculated GHG emissions from PVs in 15 Group of Twenty (G20) countries based on four scenarios adopting the global HFCVs from 2024 to 2050. This paper introduces business-as-usual (BaU), moderate, aggressive, and non-HFCVs scenario. The results show that the aggressive scenario has the highest sales, estimated between 62,000 and 29.48 million vehicles by 2050, with global hydrogen market penetration rates 48.48%. Building on countries' respective national strategies, the findings highlight China and India as the leading markets for hydrogen demand, with Germany and Japan also showing significant interest. The aggressive scenario further demonstrates that transitioning from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and HFCVs can significantly reduce annual GHG emissions. Ultimately, this study finds that the transition to HFCVs could reduce emissions by up to 67.09% by 2050.

PEMFCs Model-Based Fault Diagnosis: A Proposal Based on Virtual and Real Sensors Data Fusion.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are critical components in renewable hybrid systems, demanding reliable fault diagnosis to ensure optimal performance and prevent costly damages. This study presents a novel model-based fault diagnosis algorithm for commercial hydrogen fuel cells using LabView. Our research focused on power generation and storage using hydrogen fuel cells. The proposed algorithm accurately detects and isolates the most common faults in PEMFCs by combining virtual and real sensor data fusion. The fault diagnosis process began with simulating faults using a validated mathematical model and manipulating selected input signals. A statistical analysis of 12 residues from each fault resulted in a comprehensive fault matrix, capturing the unique fault signatures. The algorithm successfully identified and isolated 14 distinct faults, demonstrating its effectiveness in enhancing reliability and preventing performance deterioration or system shutdown in hydrogen fuel cell-based power generation systems.

The alternative path for fossil oil: Electric vehicles or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles?

New energy vehicles are accelerating to substitute for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and fossil oil. Although most literature acknowledges this trend, few compare two specific substitutable paths in terms of the operation system, namely electric vehicles (EVs) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs). This paper makes a comparative analysis of EVs and HFCVs in power sources, fuel storage and transportation, fuel supply infrastructure construction, and the cost and use of vehicles. Our findings indicate that electric passenger vehicles have more advantages in economy, safety, and environmental impact, in comparison with hydrogen fuel cell passenger vehicles. Nevertheless, great efforts should still be made to develop advanced rapid charging technology, shorten charging time, and accelerate charging infrastructure construction. Then, it is just around the corner for EVs to gradually take over from traditional motor vehicles driven by oil. In contrast, popularizing hydrogen fuel cell passenger vehicles faces several insurmountable obstacles in the short run, such as the high hydrogen production price, complicated storage process, and expensive hydrogen refueling station infrastructure. However, hydrogen fuel cell commercial vehicles have unique application scenarios. The dislocation and complementarity principle in different scenarios of EVs and HFCVs is supposed to be firmly grasped.

Desalination Fuel Cells with High Thermodynamic Energy Efficiency.

Sustainably-produced hydrogen is currently intensively investigated as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. We here characterize an emerging electrochemical cell termed a desalination fuel cell (DFC) that can continuously generate electricity and desalinate water while using hydrogen and oxygen gases as inputs. We investigated two operational modes, a near-neutral pH operation with H2, O2, and feedwater inputs (H2|O2), and a pH-gradient mode with H2, O2, feedwater, acid, and base inputs (H2 + B|O2 + A). We show that our cell can desalinate water with 30 g/L of salt content to near-zero salt concentration, while generating an enormous amount of electricity of up to 8.6 kW h per m3 of treated water when operated in the pH-gradient mode and up to about 1 kW h per m3 for the near-neutral mode. We quantify the thermodynamic energy efficiency of our device in both operational modes, showing that significantly higher efficiency is achievable in the pH-gradient mode, with up to 95.6%. Further, we present results elucidating the key bottlenecks in the DFC process, showing that the cell current and voltage are limited in the near-neutral pH operation due to a lack of H+ to serve as a reactant, and further reinforce the deleterious effect of halide poisoning on the cathode Pt catalyst and cell open circuit voltage. Such findings demonstrate that new fuel cell catalyst materials, tailored for environments associated with water treatment, can unlock yet-improved performance.

[Carbon Reduction Analysis of Life Cycle Prediction Assessment of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles：Considering Regional Features and Vehicle Type Differences].

As one of the important paths for China to achieve the "dual carbon" strategy， developing hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is currently being promoted in various regions across the country， including passenger cars， coaches， and heavy-duty trucks. Quantifying the carbon reduction potential of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for different vehicle types and regions has become a hot research topic. Using a life cycle assessment method that considers future vehicle fuel economy， power generation carbon emission factors， hydrogen production carbon emission factors， and regional differences in the scale and hydrogen production methods， this study quantitatively evaluated the life cycle carbon emissions of different types of vehicles， including fuel cell vehicles （FCV）， traditional fuel vehicles （ICEV）， and battery electric vehicles （BEV）. We compared and analyzed the carbon reduction potential of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles at different times and in different regions and conducted an uncertainty analysis on hydrogen consumption per hundred kilometers. The results showed that by 2025， the life cycle carbon emissions of hydrogen fuel cell coaches would decrease by 36.0% compared to that of traditional fuel coaches， but the reduction in carbon emissions for hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks was not significant. By 2035， as the hydrogen energy source structure in China continues to improve， the life cycle carbon emissions of hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks were predicted to decrease by 36.5% compared to that of traditional fuel heavy-duty trucks. The decarbonization potential was most significant for heavy-duty trucks compared to that of passenger cars and coaches. Taking the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei demonstration group as an example in 2035， as the hydrogen consumption per hundred kilometers decreases by 20%， the carbon reduction potential of FCV passenger cars， coaches， and heavy-duty trucks would increase by 7.29%， 9.93%， and 19.57%， respectively. Therefore， it is recommended to prioritize the promotion of hydrogen fuel cell coaches in the short term， heavy-duty trucks in the long term， and passenger cars as a supplement. Promoting hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in different regions and stages will help advance the low-carbon development of the automotive industry in China.

Improved super-twisting sliding mode control strategy in permanent magnet synchronous motors for hydrogen fuel cell centrifugal compressor.

This paper rigorously addresses the intricate control demands of high-speed, high-pressure, wide adjustable speed range, and high energy utilization efficiency required in hydrogen fuel cell centrifugal compressor, with a focus on the speed control of 40,000 RPM permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs). An improved second-order super twisting sliding mode control (STSMC) strategy is proposed to enhance system stability and robustness by integrating the beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm and grey wolf optimization (GWO) algorithm. The global search capability of BAS is used to improve the local optima issues of GWO, and then the improved GWO algorithm is utilized to address the issues related to parameter selection and convergence speed inherent in the STSMC. Theoretical validity of the proposed strategy is asserted through Quadratic Lyapunov Function, and its practicality is affirmed by thorough simulation. Comparative analyses are conducted with PI controller, traditional Sliding Mode Controller (SMC), and standard Super-Twisting Sliding Mode Controller (ST) under several case studies to show the superiority of the propose STSMC.

The impact of hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks purchase subsidies on air quality.

The pollutant emissions of diesel-powered heavy-duty trucks (HDTs) seriously damage the air quality. The promotion of hydrogen fuel cell HDTs through purchase subsidy policy to reduce emissions has become an important approach to control air pollution. This study focuses on the impact of hydrogen fuel cell HDT purchase subsidies on air quality in the context of China, covering the panel data of 31 Chinese cities from 2014 to 2021 and applying a two-way fixed effects model to analyze the contribution of purchase subsidies and hydrogen refueling station construction subsidies to air quality. Results show that (1) the increase in purchase subsidies could improve the air quality by around 6.1% and there is a lag effect. (2) Purchase subsidies make a larger contribution to air quality compared with construction subsidies. (3) Purchase subsidies can improve air quality by reducing carbon emissions in transport industry. In sight of these results, policy makers should emphasize the implementation of purchase subsidies and hydrogen refueling station construction subsidies and stimulate manufacturers to improve the performance of hydrogen fuel cell so as to contribute more to the environment.

A review on the research progress and application of compressed hydrogen in the marine hydrogen fuel cell power system.

The urgency to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from maritime vessels has intensified due to the increasingly stringent directives set forth by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). These directives specifically address energy efficiency enhancements and emissions reduction within the shipping industry. In this context, hydrogen is the much sought after fuel for all the global economies and its applications, for transportation and propulsion in particular, is crucial for cutting down carbon emissions. Nevertheless, the realization of hydrogen-powered vessels is confronted by substantial technical hurdles that necessitate thorough examination. This study undertakes a comprehensive analysis encompassing diverse facets, including distinct variations of hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen internal combustion engines, safety protocols associated with energy storage, as well as the array of policies and commercialization endeavors undertaken globally for the advancement of hydrogen-propelled ships. By amalgamating insights from these multifaceted dimensions, this paper adeptly encapsulates the myriad challenges intrinsic to the evolution of hydrogen-fueled maritime vessels, while concurrently casting a forward-looking gaze on their prospective trajectory.

Evaluation and analysis of leading position in hydrogen fuel cell vehicle innovation network and the influential factors: a case of patent citations in China.

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle industry is of great significance for China to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 and enhance the international competitiveness in the new energy vehicle industry. We propose a framework to evaluate the leading position in the innovation network of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and analyze the influential factors of the leading position. First, we construct China's hydrogen fuel cell vehicle innovation network and its two sub-networks through 3528 patents registered in China and applied by 254 Chinese and foreign innovators. Second, the positions of Chinese and foreign innovators in the network are evaluated. Last, the influential factors of the leading position are tested through regression analysis. The main results show that (1) China has formed a hub-and-spoke mode of innovation cluster in hydrogen fuel cell vehicle innovation network, but the inter-provincial innovation cooperation has not been formed in the industrial chain. (2) Universities and research institutes are important innovators in China's hydrogen fuel cell vehicle innovation network. Firms obtain knowledge through collaboration with them, which form an industry-university-research cooperation mode. (3) The number of Chinese leaders in hydrogen fuel cell vehicle network is increasing. Foreign innovators occupy the leading position in fuel cell sub-network, while Chinese innovators are the leaders in hydrogen infrastructure sub-network. (4) The leading position of Chinese innovators in hydrogen infrastructure sub-network is promoted by the patent applications of the universities, the development of equipment manufacturing, the government subsidies, and the competition of electric vehicles, while they are hindered by the scale of traditional automobile industry.

A hybrid DEMATEL-COPRAS method using interval-valued probabilistic linguistic term set for sustainable hydrogen fuel cell supplier of new energy vehicles.

With the continuous development of the global economy, global environmental pollution, climate degradation and global warming are becoming increasingly serious. In order to deal with the increasingly serious environmental problems, the government is vigorously supporting and promoting the development of new energy vehicles (NEVs). As the core unit of NEVs, one of the main challenges faced by hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) supplier is to select the best supplier for their business among all possible suppliers. Selecting the optimal supplier is a key decision in green supplier management. Therefore, it is extremely important and meaningful to select an optimal HFC supplier to provide power for NEVs. This paper proposes a new decision-making framework based on Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) method and Complex proportional assessment (COPRAS) method under interval-valued probabilistic linguistic environment to select the appropriate HFC supplier of NEVs. Firstly, this paper establishes the evaluation criteria system of HFC supplier assessment which is the synthesis of economical, environmental, social, technical, organisation and service aspects. Then, in order to express the uncertainty of expert decision-making, this paper uses interval-valued probabilistic linguistic term set (IVPLTS) to describe the evaluation information. Next, the interval-valued probabilistic linguistic term set decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (IVPLTS-DEMATEL) method is applied to calculate the criteria weights. Moreover, this paper constructs the interval-valued probabilistic linguistic term set Complex Proportional Assessment (IVPLTS-COPRAS) model for the selection of HFC supplier of NEVs. Finally, a case in China with sensitivity analysis and comparison analysis are executed to illustrate the feasibility and validity of the proposed approach. This paper provides valuable references for investors and companies to select the most appropriate HFC supplier of NEVs under uncertain environment.

Dynamics Management of Intermediate Water Storage in an Air-Breathing Single-Cell Membrane Electrode Assembly.

In air-breathing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (Air PEM FCs), a high rate of water evaporation from the cathode might influence the resistance of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which is highly dependent on the water content of the Nafion membrane. We propose a dead-end hydrogen anode as a means of intermediate storage of water/humidity for self-humidification of the membrane. Such an inflatable bag integrated with a single lightweight MEA FC has the potential in blimp applications for anode self-humidification. A dynamic numerical water balance model, validated by experimental measurements, is derived to predict the effect of MEA configuration, and the membrane's hydration state and water transfer rate at the anode on MEA resistance and performance. The experimental setup included humidity measurements, and polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy tests to quantify the effect of membrane hydration on its resistance in a lightweight MEA (12 g) integrated with an inflatable dead-end hydrogen storage bag. Varying current densities (5, 10, and 15 mA/cm2) and cathode humidity levels (20, 50, and 80%) were examined and compared with the numerical results. The validated model predicts that the hydration state of the membrane and water transfer rate at the anode can be increased by using a thin membrane and thicker gas diffusion layer.

Seed-Mediated, Shape-Controlled Synthesis Methods for Platinum-Based Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction-A Mini Review.

Overcoming the slow oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) kinetics at the cathode of the hydrogen fuel cells requires the use of electrocatalysts containing expensive and scare platinum to achieve reasonable performance, hampering widespread use of the technology due to high material costs and sustainability issues. One option available to tackle this issue is to use new designs to create nanomaterials which achieve excellent electrocatalytic performances and long-lasting stabilities whilst using less platinum than is currently required. Reliably producing nanomaterials with predictable activities and stabilities using simple, safe, and scalable methods is an important research topic to the advancement of fuel cell technologies. The oxygen reduction reaction occurs at the surface of electrocatalytic materials, and since nanomaterial structures exhibit different catalytic activities, their shapes have a strong relationship to the final performance. Seed-mediated synthesis can be used to control the shape of materials with the aim of obtaining products with the most desirable surface properties for the ORR. This review summarized the current advancement of the synthesis of platinum-based ORR and provided the insights for the future development of this field.

Recent advances in transition metal nitrides for hydrogen electrocatalysis in alkaline media: From catalyst design to application.

Hydrogen (H2) has been considered an ideal alternative energy source for solving energy supply security and greenhouse gas reduction. Although platinum group metal (PGM) catalysts have excellent performance in hydrogen electrocatalysis, their scarcity and high cost limit their industrial application. Therefore, it is necessary to develop low-cost and efficient non-PGM catalysts. Transition metal nitrides (TMNs) have attracted much attention because of their excellent catalytic performance in hydrogen electrochemistry, including hydrogen evolution reaction (HER)/hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR). In this paper, we review and discuss the mechanism of HER/HOR in alkaline media. We compare and evaluate electrocatalytic performance for the HER/HOR TMN catalysts recently reported. Finally, we propose the prospects and research trends in sustainable alkaline hydrogen electrocatalysis.

Investigation of a Novel Hydrogen Depressurization Structure Constituted by an Orifice Plate with Tesla-Type Channels.

A hydrogen depressurization system is required to supply the hydrogen to the fuel cell stack from the storage. In this study, a Tesla-type depressurization construction is proposed. Parallel Tesla-type channels are integrated with the traditional orifice plate structure. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is applied to simulate high-pressure hydrogen flow through the proposed structure, using a commercial software package, ANSYS-Fluent (version 19.2, ANSYS, Inc. Southpointe, Canonsburg, PA, USA). The Peng-Robinson (PR) equation of state (EoS) is incorporated into the CFD model to provide an accurate thermophysical property estimation. The construction is optimized by the parametric analysis. The results show that the pressure reduction performance is improved greatly without a significant increase in size. The flow impeding effect of the Tesla-type orifice structure is primarily responsible for the pressure reduction improvement. To enhance the flow impeding effect, modifications are introduced to the Tesla-type channel and the pressure reduction performance has been further improved. Compared to a standard orifice plate, the Tesla-type orifice structure can improve the pressure reduction by 237%. Under low inlet mass flow rates, introduction of a secondary Tesla-type orifice construction can achieve better performance of pressure reduction. Additionally, increasing parallel Tesla-type channels can effectively reduce the maximum Mach number. To further improve the pressure reduction performance, a second set of Tesla-type channels can be introduced to form a two-stage Tesla-type orifice structure. The study provides a feasible structure design to achieve high-efficiency hydrogen depressurization in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs).

Comparative water footprint assessment of fuel cell electric vehicles and compressed natural gas vehicles.

Utilization of renewable energy has become a current energy development trend. In this study, the water footprints of a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) and a compressed natural gas vehicle (CNG) under different fuel scenarios were evaluated. The FCEV exhibits a low water footprint of 27.2 L/100 km under steam methane reforming hydrogen production technology. Hydrogen production using steam methane reforming and water electrolysis via wind can enable the FCEV industry to save more water resources. The percentage difference between different metallic materials in automobiles was analyzed. The water consumption by steel accounted for 73.6% and 80.5%, respectively. The fluctuation law of the water footprint was analyzed based on different power structures and steel water consumption coefficients. It was found that for low steel water consumption coefficient, wind power generation is conducive to slowing down the water consumption during the entire life cycle. In addition, a sensitivity analysis was performed for the FCEV and CNG under different fuel scenarios. Fuel technology and material structure have a significant impact on the total water footprint. The results of this study can provide guidance for the layout of the automobile industry and for water-saving measures in the future.

[Life Cycle Assessment and Key Parameter Comparison of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Power Systems].

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) are regarded as potential solutions to the problems of energy security and environmental pollution. To explore the energy consumption and pollutant emissions of fuel cell vehicle power systems, data inventories of an HFCV power system were established, and quantitative evaluation calculations and prediction analysis were carried out for fuel life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of Chinese fuel cell vehicles in 2030 based on the technology roadmap for new energy vehicles by modeling with GaBi software. The effects of different types of bipolar plates, different energy control strategies, and different hydrogen production methods on the environment were studied, with uncertainty analysis as the key parameter. The results showed that fossil energy consumption (ADPf), global warming potential (GWP, CO2 equivalent), and acidification potential (AP, SO2 equivalent) for the HFCV power system in the fuel life cycle were 1.35×105 MJ, 9108 kg, and 15.79 kg, respectively. The energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the production of the power system were higher than those in the use stage, mainly because of the fuel cell stack and hydrogen storage tank. In the manufacturing process of metal bipolar plates, graphite composite bipolar plates, and graphite bipolar plates, graphite composite bipolar plates had the most comprehensive environmental benefits. Optimizing the energy control strategy will reduce hydrogen energy consumption. When the hydrogen energy consumption was reduced by 22.8%, the life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of the power system were reduced by 10.4% and 8.3%, respectively. For life cycle power systems, the use of hydrogen from electrolysis operated with water power reduced the GWP by approximately 39.6% relative to steam methane reforming. In contrast, the application of hydrogen from electrolysis operated with the Chinese electricity grid mix resulted in an increase in GWP of almost 53.7%. Measures to reduce fossil energy consumption and global warming potential in the life cycle of fuel cell vehicle powertrains include optimizing energy control strategies to reduce hydrogen energy consumption, scaling up the hydrogen production industry using water electrolysis for renewable energy power generation, and focusing on key technologies of fuel cell stacks to improve performance.

DFT Calculations of the Adsorption States of O2 on OH/H2O-Covered Pt(111).

The adsorption of O2 on Pt(111) was studied with Density Functional Theory calculations. Various adsorbed states of O2 were evaluated on clean and OH/H2O-covered Pt(111) surfaces at the solid/gas and solid/liquid interfaces. The results reveal that the adsorption of O2 on OH/H2O-covered Pt(111) surface starts with the physical adsorption of O2. Two other adsorption states are reachable from the physisorbed state, the end-on, and bridging chemisorbed O2. Analysis of the energetics of these adsorption states shows that O2 physically adsorbed at the OH/H2O-covered Pt( 111) surface is a high energy state that requires activation to transition to the end-on chemisorbed O2 state. On the other hand, the end-on chemisorbed state can transition to the bridging chemisorbed state with only a small activation energy when a nearby Pt adsorption site is available. Frequency analysis of the physisorbed, end-on, and bridging adsorption states shows that adsorbed O2 stretching frequencies are close to 1400, 1300, and 900 cm-1, respectively.

Introduction of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles: prospects and challenges for Malaysia's transition to a low-carbon economy.

Alternative energy policies targeting the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) could have significant positive impacts on Malaysia's ability to meet both its carbon reduction goal and its energy security needs. The transport sector generally contributes heavily to carbon emissions, and is also difficult to decarbonize because of the costs associated with many greener options. This study explores the possibility of decarbonizing the Malaysian transport sector by promoting the use of hydrogen vehicles, and analyzes the adoption challenges and economic obstacles (especially public acceptance) associated with introducing HFCVs. This study contends that the adoption challenges of this new technology can be overcome through the use of development strategies outlined. This study also addresses the regulatory framework that Malaysia (and other countries) might use to overcome common policy adoption challenges of HFCVs.