Costs of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection attributable to not handwashing: the cases of India and China.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the national costs relating to diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections from not handwashing with soap after contact with excreta and the costs and benefits of handwashing behaviour change programmes in India and China. METHODS: Data on the reduction in risk of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection attributable to handwashing with soap were used, together with World Health Organization (WHO) estimates of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) due to diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection, to estimate DALYs due to not handwashing in India and China. Costs and benefits of behaviour change handwashing programmes and the potential returns to investment are estimated valuing DALYs at per capita GDP for each country. RESULTS: Annual net costs to India from not handwashing are estimated at US$ 23 billion (16-35) and to China at US$ 12 billion (7-23). Expected net returns to national behaviour change handwashing programmes would be US$ 5.6 billion (3.4-8.6) for India at US$ 23 (16-35) per DALY avoided, which represents a 92-fold return to investment, and US$ 2.64 billion (2.08-5.57) for China at US$ 22 (14-31) per DALY avoided - a 35-fold return on investment. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest large economic gains relating to decreases in diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection for both India and China from behaviour change programmes to increase handwashing with soap in households.

Does targeting children with hygiene promotion messages work? The effect of handwashing promotion targeted at children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infections and behaviour change, in low- and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVES: To synthesise evidence on the effect of handwashing promotion interventions targeting children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection and handwashing behaviour, in low- and middle-income country settings. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was performed by searching eight databases, and reference lists were hand-searched for additional articles. Studies were reviewed for inclusion according to pre-defined inclusion criteria and the quality of all studies was assessed. RESULTS: Eight studies were included in this review: seven cluster-randomised controlled trials and one cluster non-randomised controlled trial. All eight studies targeted children aged 5-12 attending primary school but were heterogeneous for both the type of intervention and the reported outcomes so results were synthesised qualitatively. None of the studies were of high quality and the large majority were at high risk of bias. The reported effect of child-targeted handwashing interventions on our outcomes of interest varied between studies. Of the different interventions reported, no one approach to promoting handwashing among children appeared most effective. CONCLUSION: Our review found very few studies that evaluated handwashing interventions targeting children and all had various methodological limitations. It is plausible that interventions which succeed in changing children's handwashing practices will lead to significant health impacts given that much of the attributable disease burden is concentrated in that age group. The current paucity of evidence in this area, however, does not permit any recommendations to be made as to the most effective route to increasing handwashing with soap practice among children in LMIC.

Is pregnancy a teachable moment to promote handwashing with soap among primiparous women in rural Bangladesh? Follow-up of a randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Promoting handwashing with soap to mothers of young children can significantly reduce diarrhoea and pneumonia morbidity among children, but studies that measured long-term behaviour after interventions rarely found improvements in handwashing habits. Expecting mothers may experience emotional and social changes that create a unique environment that may encourage adoption of improved handwashing habits. The objective of this study was to determine whether exposure to an intensive handwashing intervention in the perinatal period (perinatal arm) was associated with improved maternal handwashing behaviour vs. exposure to the same intervention after the end of the perinatal period (post-neonatal arm). METHODS: We identified primiparous women previously enrolled a randomised controlled handwashing intervention trial (November 2010-December 2011) and observed handwashing behaviours at the home 1-14 months after completion of the RCT (January-May 2012). We observed maternal handwashing and estimated the prevalence ratio (PR) of maternal handwashing using log-binomial regression. RESULTS: We enrolled 107 mothers in the perinatal arm and 105 mothers in the post-neonatal arm. Handwashing with soap at recommended times was low overall (4.6%) and comparable between arms (PR = 0.9, 95% CI 0.5, 1.5). CONCLUSIONS: This handwashing intervention was unable to develop and establish improved handwashing practices in primiparous women in rural Bangladesh. While pregnancy may present an opportunity and motivation to do so, further studies should assess whether social, individual and environmental influences overcome this motivation and prevent handwashing with soap among new mothers.

Household-level risk factors for influenza among young children in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a case-control study.

OBJECTIVES: To identify household-level factors associated with influenza among young children in a crowded community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study using existing active surveillance for respiratory illness. Cases were children aged 12-59 months with laboratory-confirmed influenza. Controls were children frequency-matched by age group with no respiratory illness in the prior 6 months. We interviewed caregivers and observed household handwashing behaviour. Soap consumption was estimated by summing weight differences of three bars of soap sequentially left in each household. We measured concentrations of airborne particulate matter <2.5 µg in diameter (PM2.5) in a subset of households. We used logistic regression to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: We enrolled 145 cases and 341 controls between March 2009 and April 2010. Case and control household members were observed to wash hands with similar frequency during a 5-h period (mean, 0.64 events vs. 0.63, P = 0.87), and similar daily soap consumption per capita (mean 2.92 grams vs. 2.93, P = 0.92). Case households were more likely than controls to have crowded (≥4 persons) sleeping areas (aOR = 1.67, CI: 1.06-2.63) and cross-ventilated cooking spaces (aOR = 1.75, CI: 1.16-2.63). Case and control households had similar median 24-h geometric mean PM2.5 concentrations in the cooking (69.2 vs. 69.6 µg/m(3), P = 0.45) and sleeping (65.4 vs. 67.4 µg/m(3), P = 0.19) spaces. CONCLUSIONS: Handwashing with soap was practiced infrequently and was not associated with paediatric influenza in this community. Interventions aimed at crowded households may reduce influenza incidence in young children.

Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the global prevalence of handwashing with soap and derive a pooled estimate of the effect of hygiene on diarrhoeal diseases, based on a systematic search of the literature. METHODS: Studies with data on observed rates of handwashing with soap published between 1990 and August 2013 were identified from a systematic search of PubMed, Embase and ISI Web of Knowledge. A separate search was conducted for studies on the effect of hygiene on diarrhoeal disease that included randomised controlled trials, quasi-randomised trials with control group, observational studies using matching techniques and observational studies with a control group where the intervention was well defined. The search used Cochrane Library, Global Health, BIOSIS, PubMed, and Embase databases supplemented with reference lists from previously published systematic reviews to identify studies published between 1970 and August 2013. Results were combined using multilevel modelling for handwashing prevalence and meta-regression for risk estimates. RESULTS: From the 42 studies reporting handwashing prevalence we estimate that approximately 19% of the world population washes hands with soap after contact with excreta (i.e. use of a sanitation facility or contact with children's excreta). Meta-regression of risk estimates suggests that handwashing reduces the risk of diarrhoeal disease by 40% (risk ratio 0.60, 95% CI 0.53-0.68); however, when we included an adjustment for unblinded studies, the effect estimate was reduced to 23% (risk ratio 0.77, 95% CI 0.32-1.86). CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that handwashing after contact with excreta is poorly practiced globally, despite the likely positive health benefits.

Assessing the impact of a school-based latrine cleaning and handwashing program on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial.

OBJECTIVES: Improving school water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions reduces pupil absence and illness. However, these benefits may depend on the conditions of the latrines and availability of consumables. We sought to determine whether a low-cost, policy-relevant, environmental-level latrine cleaning intervention could improve latrine cleanliness, increase its use and reduce absenteeism. METHODS: In a three-arm, cluster-randomized trial we assessed absence via periodical roll-call among 17 564 pupils in 60 schools that had previously received WASH improvements as part of the SWASH+ project. Latrine conditions and use were also assessed using structured observation. Latrine cleanliness increased significantly during the post-intervention period among schools receiving the latrine cleaning package compared to controls, as did handwashing with soap. We found no difference in latrine use and absence across arms. CONCLUSIONS: The additive impact of cleaning may not have been strong enough to impact absence above and beyond reductions attributable to the original WASH infrastructure improvements and basic hygiene education the schools previously received. Improving latrine conditions is important for the dignity and well-being of pupils, and investments and strategies are necessary to ensure that school toilets are clean and pupil-friendly.

[Preventive measures for avoiding transmission of microorganisms between hospitalised patients. Hand hygiene]. / Medidas de prevención de la transmisión de microorganismos entre pacientes hospitalizados. Higiene de manos.

Health-care associated infections are an important public health problem worldwide. The rates of health-care associated infections are indicators of the quality of health care. The infection control activities related to prevention of transmission of hospital microorganisms can be grouped in 4 mayor areas: standard precautions, specific precautions (including isolation if appropriate), environmental cleaning and disinfection, and surveillance activities (including providing infection rates and monitoring procedures). Hand hygiene and the correct use of gloves are the most important measures to prevent health-care associated infections and to avoid the dissemination of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Continuous educational activities aimed at improving adherence to hand hygiene are needed. Periodical assessment of adherence to hand hygiene recommendations with feed-back have been shown to provide sustained improvement. Several complementary activities are being evaluated, including skin decolonization prior to certain surgeries, a package of measures in patients with central venous catheters or mechanical ventilation, and universal body hygiene with chlorhexidine. The present area of discussion concerns in which situations and in which groups would such measures be effective and efficient.

Frequency of hand contact with hospital surfaces in hospitalized pediatric patients.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene (HH) is an important strategy for preventing health-care-associated infections (HAIs). Few programs focus on HH for family members and primary caregivers but fewer for patients. This study aimed to estimate the frequency with which hospitalized pediatric patients have hand contact with hospital surfaces. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional descriptive observational study consisting of three phases: the first was the creation of an observation and data collection tool, the second was the training of the monitors, and the third was the observational study of hand contact and HH opportunities in hospitalized pediatric patients. RESULTS: Over 3600 minutes of observation, 2032 HH opportunities were detected, averaging 33.8/h (SD 4.7) as determined by hand contact with hospital surfaces of hospitalized pediatric patients. In our study, infants and preschool children had the highest frequency of hand contact. CONCLUSION: The high frequency of hand contact of hospital surfaces by children suggests that hourly hand disinfection of patients and caregivers, objects and surfaces around the patients may be prevention measures that could be incorporated to reduce HAIs in pediatric hospitals.

INTRODUCCIÓN: La higiene de manos es una estrategia importante para la prevención de infecciones asociadas a la atención sanitaria. Existen pocos programas centrados en la higiene de manos para los familiares y cuidadores primarios, y aún menos para el paciente. El objetivo de este estudio fue cuantificar la frecuencia con la que los pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados tienen contacto manual con superficies hospitalarias. MÉTODOS: Se llevó a cabo un estudio observacional descriptivo transversal que constó de tres fases: la primera fue la creación de una herramienta de observación y registro de datos; la segunda fue la capacitación de los monitores y la tercera fue el estudio observacional del contacto manual y de las oportunidades de higiene de manos en pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados. RESULTADOS: Durante los 3600 minutos de observación, se detectaron 2032 oportunidades, con una media de 33.8 (DE 4.7) por hora de oportunidades de higiene de manos establecidas por contacto manual con superficies de pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados. Los lactantes y los niños en edad preescolar presentaron la mayor frecuencia de contacto manual. CONCLUSIONES: La alta frecuencia de contacto manual por parte del niño indica que medidas como la desinfección de las manos cada hora del paciente y del cuidador, así como de los objetos y superficies alrededor del paciente, podrían ser medidas útiles que deberían incluirse para prevenir las infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud en los hospitales pediátricos.

[Significant increase in the colonisation of Staphylococcus aureus among medical students during their hospital practices]. / Aumento significativo de la colonización por Staphylococcus aureus entre los estudiantes de medicina durante la realización de las prácticas en el hospital.

INTRODUCTION: Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogen of major concern. The emergence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has increasingly complicated the therapeutic approach of hospital-acquired infections. Surveillance of MRSA and control measures must be implemented in different healthcare settings, including screening programs for carriers. Our first aim was to determine the prevalence of methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and MRSA nasal carriage in medical students from the Clínico San Carlos Hospital (Madrid). As the MRSA carrier rate in healthcare workers is higher than in the general population, we hypothesised that carrier rate could be increased during their clinical practice in their last three years. METHODS: We performed an epidemiologic al study of the prevalence of S. aureus colonisation among a group of medical students, who were sampled in 2008 in their third-year, and in 2012 when this class was in its sixth year. RESULTS: We have found a significant increase in MSSA carriage, from 27% to 46%. There were no MRSA colonisations in the third-year, but one was found in the sixth-year group. The large majority of strains (89%) of strains were resistant to penicillin, and 27% to erythromycin and clindamycin. As 19 coagulase-negative Staphylococcus MR were also identified, a horizontal transfer of genes, such as mecA gene to S. aureus, could have occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Medical students are both, at risk for acquiring, and a potential source of nosocomial pathogens, mainly MSSA. Therefore, they should take special care for hygienic precautions, such as frequent and proper hand washing, while working in the hospital.

Frequency of hand contact with hospital surfaces in hospitalized pediatric patients / Frecuencia de contacto de manos de pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados

Abstract Background: Hand hygiene (HH) is an important strategy for preventing health-care-associated infections (HAIs). Few programs focus on HH for family members and primary caregivers but fewer for patients. This study aimed to estimate the frequency with which hospitalized pediatric patients have hand contact with hospital surfaces. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional descriptive observational study consisting of three phases: the first was the creation of an observation and data collection tool, the second was the training of the monitors, and the third was the observational study of hand contact and HH opportunities in hospitalized pediatric patients. Results: Over 3600 minutes of observation, 2032 HH opportunities were detected, averaging 33.8/h (SD 4.7) as determined by hand contact with hospital surfaces of hospitalized pediatric patients. In our study, infants and preschool children had the highest frequency of hand contact. Conclusion: The high frequency of hand contact of hospital surfaces by children suggests that hourly hand disinfection of patients and caregivers, objects and surfaces around the patients may be prevention measures that could be incorporated to reduce HAIs in pediatric hospitals.

Resumen Introducción: La higiene de manos es una estrategia importante para la prevención de infecciones asociadas a la atención sanitaria. Existen pocos programas centrados en la higiene de manos para los familiares y cuidadores primarios, y aún menos para el paciente. El objetivo de este estudio fue cuantificar la frecuencia con la que los pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados tienen contacto manual con superficies hospitalarias. Métodos: Se llevó a cabo un estudio observacional descriptivo transversal que constó de tres fases: la primera fue la creación de una herramienta de observación y registro de datos; la segunda fue la capacitación de los monitores y la tercera fue el estudio observacional del contacto manual y de las oportunidades de higiene de manos en pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados. Resultados: Durante los 3600 minutos de observación, se detectaron 2032 oportunidades, con una media de 33.8 (DE 4.7) por hora de oportunidades de higiene de manos establecidas por contacto manual con superficies de pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados. Los lactantes y los niños en edad preescolar presentaron la mayor frecuencia de contacto manual. Conclusiones: La alta frecuencia de contacto manual por parte del niño indica que medidas como la desinfección de las manos cada hora del paciente y del cuidador, así como de los objetos y superficies alrededor del paciente, podrían ser medidas útiles que deberían incluirse para prevenir las infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud en los hospitales pediátricos.

¿Cambió la adherencia al lavado de manos en tiempos de SARS-CoV-2? / ¿Did adherence to hand hygiene chance during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic?

Objetivo principal: Determinar la adherencia al lavado de manos en el personal de salud en los periodos pre-pandemia y pandemia SARS-CoV-2. Objetivos secundarios: Determinar la adherencia según categoría profesional, sectores de internación y momentos del lavado de manos. Determinar el grado de cumplimiento según una escala de referencia. Metodología: Estudio cuasi experimental que evaluó la adherencia al lavado de manos antes y después de intensificar medidas de prevención. Se comparó la adherencia de dos períodos, diciembre 2019 y agosto 2020. Resultados: Se observó que la adherencia en 2019 fue 67% (IC95%: 63%-71%) y en 2020 de 89% (IC95%: 86%-92%), lo que implica un aumento de 22% (IC95%: 0.17-0.27; p:0.000). En el análisis de subgrupos de momentos de la OMS se observó un aumento en los momentos agrupados como antes (65,7 a 81,2; p:0.001) y como después (67,7 a 94,3; p:0.000). En el análisis por sectores de internación se observó un aumento en los sectores de guardia (50,5 a 100; p:0.000) e internación (63,3 a 78,0; p:0.006) y en pediatría (94,2 a 96,5; p:0.336) y UTI/UCO (63,7 a 70,5; p:0.405), en estos dos últimos no significativo. En el análisis por categoría profesional se observó un aumento en las categorías enfermero (81,4 a 92,9; p:0.001), médicos (66,7 a 83,8; p:0.003), técnicos (57,8 a 93,2; p:0.000) y apoyo (49,4 a 83,9; p:0.000). Discusión: En nuestro estudio, la intensificación de las medidas de lavado de manos y la pandemia motivaron un incremento significativo en la adherencia a la higiene de manos

Main objective. To determine the adherence to hand washing in health care staff in pre-pandemic and SARS-CoV-2 pandemic periods, after intensifying the measures of a program. Secondary objectives. Determine adherence according to professional category, hospitalization sectors and moments of hand washing. Methodology. Quasi-experimental study that evaluated adherence to hand washing before and after intensifying measures. The adherence of 2 periods was compared, December 2019 and August 2020. Outcomes. It was observed that adherence in 2019 was 67% (95% IC: 63% -71%) and in 2020 it was 89% (95% IC: 86% -92%), which implies an increase of 22% (95% IC: 0.17-0.27; p: 0.000). In the subgroup analysis of WHO moments, an increase was observed in the moments grouped as before (65.7 to 81.2; p: 0.001) and as after (67.7 to 94.3; p: 0.000). In the analysis by hospitalization sectors, an increase was observed in emergency sectors (50.5 to 100; p: 0.000) and hospitalization (63.3 to 78.0; p: 0.006) and not significant in pediatrics (94.2 to 96.5; p : 0.336) and UTI / UCO (63.7 to 70.5; p: 0.405). In the analysis by professional category, a significant increase was observed in the categories nurse (81.4 to 92.9; p: 0.001), doctors (66.7 to 83.8; p: 0.003), technicians (57.8 to 93.2; p: 0.000) and support (49.4 to 83.9; p: 0.000). Conclusion. In our study, the intensification of hand washing measures and the pandemic led to a significant increase in adherence to hand hygien

Estrategia de Intervención digital basada en el constructivismo para el conocimiento de lavado de manos en estudiantes de enfermería / Digital intervention strategy based on constructivism for handwashing knowledge in nursing students / Estratégia de intervenção digital baseada no construtivismo para o conhecimento da desinfecção das mãos em estudantes de enfermagem

Introducción: La higiene de manos es toda técnica destinada a remover, destruir o reducir la flora transitoria de la piel. Diversas organizaciones concuerdan en que es el procedimiento más costo-efectivo que puede disminuir las infecciones en pacientes hospitalizados, así como proteger al personal que se encuentra en contacto con ellos. Actualmente, ante los retos provocados por la pandemia de la COVID-19, las técnicas de enseñanza-aprendizaje optan por modalidades tecnológicas a distancia con enfoques basados en la autogestión del conocimiento y el desarrollo de habilidades propias, que puedan incidir en este hábito. Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de una intervención digital con enfoque constructivista para aumentar el conocimiento del lavado de manos. Metodología: Estudio cuasi experimental, longitudinal y prospectivo. Se seleccionaron a 26 estudiantes de enfermería del último año de un programa educativo a través de un muestreo no probabilístico a conveniencia, con quienes se llevó a cabo una intervención virtual con enfoque constructivista. A tal efecto se utilizó el instrumento "Conocimiento sobre higiene de manos en profesionales sanitarios" (alfa de Cronbach=0.784) para la prueba de diferencia de conocimiento pre y post intervención. Resultados: Posterior a la intervención, el 100% de los sujetos reconocen las manos como prin-cipal vía de transmisión y el 73.10% identifica correctamente el tiempo necesario para llevarlo a cabo; sin embargo, no existe diferencia estadísticamente significativa del conocimiento previo. Conclusión: A través de las intervenciones constructivistas los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de ser gestores de su propio conocimiento y adquirir conductas, hábitos y experiencias superiores a los objetivos planteados; no obstante, se debe tomar en cuenta los factores de contextualización y operatividad de las intervenciones para lograr su mayor efectividad.

Introduction: Hand hygiene is any technique designed to remove, destroy, or reduce the tran-sient flora of the skin. Many organizations agree that this is the most cost-effective procedure that can prevent hospital-acquired infections in hospitalized patients, as well as protecting the personnel that is in contact with them. Currently, facing the challenges caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the teaching-learning techniques opt for distance technological mo-dalities with approaches based on self-management of knowledge and the development of self- skills, which can have an impact on this habit. Objective: Evaluate the effectivity of a digital intervention with a constructivist approach to increase the knowledge of handwashing. Methodology: Quasi-experimental, longitudinal, and prospective study. Twenty-six nursing students in the last year of an educational program were selected through a non-probability convenience sample, which had a virtual intervention with a constructivist approach. To that effect the instrument used was "Knowledge about hand hygiene in healthcare profession-als" (Cronbach's alpha=0.784) to test the difference of knowledge pre and post intervention. Results: After the intervention, 100% of the subjects recognize that hands are the main way of transmission and 73.10% correctly identify the time needed to wash their hands; howev-er, there is no significant statistical difference of previous knowledge. Conclusion: Through constructivist interventions the students have the chance of managing their own knowledge and acquire behaviors, habits and experiences beyond the objectives set; nevertheless, factors of contextualization and operativity should be considered for the interventions to achieve greater effectivity

Introdução: A higiene das mãos é toda técnica destinada à remoção, destruição ou redução da flora transitória da pele. Diversas organizações concordam que é o procedimento mais custo-benefício que pode reduzir as infeções no paciente internado, assim como proteger o pessoal que está em contato com eles. Atualmente, os desafios provocados pela pandemia da COVID-19, as técnicas de ensino têm acolhido ferramentas tecnológicas a distância com fundamentação na autogestão do conhecimento e o desenvolvimento de habilidades próprias, que possam incidir nesse habito. Objetivo: Avaliar a efetividade de uma intervenção digital com fundamentação construtivista para incrementar o conhecimento do lavado das mãos. Métodos: Estudo quase-experimental, longitudinal, prospetivo. Foram escolhidos 26 alunos de enfermagem de último ano através de uma amostragem não probabilística por conven-iência. Foi feita uma intervenção virtual empregando-se o instrumento "Conhecimento so-bre higiene das mãos em profissionais sanitários" (alfa de Cronbach= 0,78) para a prova de conhecimento pre e pós intervenção. Resultados: Posterior à intervenção, 100% dos partici-pantes reconhecem as mãos como a principal fonte de transmissão e 73,10% identifica corre-tamente o tempo necessário para lavar as mãos; entretanto, não existe diferença significativa do conhecimento prévio. Conclusão: Através das intervenções construtivistas os alunos têm a oportunidade de ser gestores do seu próprio conhecimento e adquirir condutas, hábitos e experiências superiores aos objetivos formulados; entretanto, deve-se considerar os fatores como contexto e operabilidade das intervenções para conseguir a maior efetividade

Efectividad de un programa educativo en el lavado de manos del personal de salud / Effectiveness of an Educational Program in Handwashing for the Health Personnel

Introducción: Las infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria están entre las causas más frecuentes de morbi-mortalidad de pacientes hospitalizados. El lavado de manos parece un tema sencillo dentro de la sanidad, sin embargo, no siempre funciona como debería. Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de un programa educativo en el lavado de manos del personal de salud. Métodos: Estudio cuasiexperimental desarrollado en tres etapas (diagnóstica, intervención y evaluación) en el Hospital "Lucía Íñiguez", Holguín, durante 2016, con 50 trabajadores seleccionados al azar. La información se obtuvo antes y después de aplicado el programa educativo mediante una guía de observación y un cuestionario. Se realizó análisis descriptivo de la información, que incluyó frecuencias absolutas y porcentajes para variables cualitativas; medias, medianas, desviaciones estándar con intervalos de confianza (95 por ciento para variables cuantitativas). Para estudiar la efectividad del programa educativo se compararon los resultados obtenidos antes y después de su aplicación mediante la prueba exacta de Wilcoxon para datos apareados. Se valoraron niveles de significación inferiores al 0,05. Resultados: Predominó el personal de enfermería (70 por ciento), después de aplicado el programa educativo todos los parámetros evaluados sobre el lavado de manos mejoraron y disminuyó la cantidad de trabajadores en los que se aisló algún tipo de germen en los cultivos de las manos realizados. Conclusiones: El lavado de manos de los trabajadores, luego de las acciones realizadas varió favorablemente, aumentó el tiempo utilizado aunque no siempre se llegó al establecido. Los gérmenes disminuyeron, se logró modificar conductas y disminuir el riesgo de infecciones(AU)

Introduction: Infections associated with healthcare are among the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients. Handwashing seems like a simple issue in healthcare; however, not always does it work as it should. Objective: To assess the effectiveness of an educational program in washing for the health personnel. Methods: Quasiexperimental study carried out in three stages (diagnosis, intervention, and evaluation) at Lucía Íñiguez Hospital in Holguín, during 2016, with 50 randomly selected workers. The information was obtained through an observation guide and a questionnaire, before and after the educational program was applied. Descriptive analysis of the information was carried out, which included absolute frequencies and percentages for qualitative variables; means, medians, standard deviations with confidence intervals (95 percent) for quantitative variables. To study the effectiveness of the educational program, the results obtained before and after its application were compared using the paired data Wilcoxon test. Significance levels below 0.05 were assessed. Results: There was a predominance of the nursing staff (70 percent). After applying the educational program, all evaluated parameters on handwashing improved and the number of workers in whom some type of germ was isolated in the cultures carried out was reduced. Conclusions: Handwashing among the workers, after the actions carried out, varied favorably. The time used increased, although the established one was not always reached. Germs decreased, behaviors were modified, and the risk of infections decreased(AU)

Flora bacteriana resistente al lavado de manos en estudiantes universitarios / Bacterial Flora Resistant to Hand Washing in University Students

Introducción: En la superficie cutánea residen microorganismos responsables del balance bioquímico, algunas son patógenas y persisten a pesar del lavado de manos. Objetivo: Identificar la flora bacteriana resistente al lavado de manos en estudiantes universitarios. Métodos: Se realizó el estudio observacional analítico de tipo longitudinal, para esto se enrolaron a estudiantes universitarios que recibieron previamente charlas educativas sobre higiene de manos, posteriormente se tomaron muestras antes y después del lavado de las manos. Resultados: De 80 muestras analizadas se identificó a Staphylococcus epidermidis como el más frecuente en 95 por ciento de los estudiantes y con el lavado de manos se redujo a 60 por ciento; el segundo agente fue Staphylococcus saprophyticcus, que estuvo presente en 75 por ciento de los casos y después del lavado, en 35 por ciento; E. coli ocupó el tercer lugar, se encontró en 42,5 por ciento de las muestras y tras la higiene de manos se redujo a 17,5 por ciento. Para los agentes transitorios como Klebsiella (p < 0,05) y Pseudomonas, el lavado de manos fue más efectivo; sin embargo, E. coli fue la enterobacteria que permaneció elevada a pesar de la higiene de manos (p = 0,01). Conclusión: Algunas colonias de E. coli son resistentes al lavado de manos, similar a los agentes residentes como Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticcus y Staphylococcus aureus(AU)

Introduction: The skin surface is inhabited by microorganisms responsible for the biochemical balance; some are pathogenic and persist despite hand washing. Objective: To identify, in university students, the bacterial flora resistant to hand washing. Methods: A longitudinal, analytical and observational study was carried out, for which university students were included who previously received educational talks on hand hygiene. Samples were taken before and after hand washing. Results: Of 80 samples analyzed, Staphylococcus epidermidis was identified as the most frequent in 95 percent of the students and, with hand washing, it was reduced to 60 percent the second agent was Staphylococcus saprophyticcus, present in 75 percent of the cases and, after hand washing, in 35 percent. E. coli occupied the third position, as it was found in 42.5 percent of the samples and, after hand hygiene, it was reduced to 17.5 percent. For transient agents like Klebsiella (P<0.05) and Pseudomonas, handwashing was more effective; however, E. coli was the enterobacterium that remained elevated despite hand hygiene (P=0.01). Conclusion: Some E. coli colonies are resistant to hand washing, similar to resident agents such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticcus and Staphylococcus aureus(AU)

Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre la adherencia al lavado de manos en personal de salud / Knowledge, attitudes and practices related to the adherence of handwashing in health personnel

Introducción: El lavado de manos deficiente, sigue siendo un problema hospitalario. Cumplir con las recomendaciones internacionales ofrece seguridad en el cuidado. Objetivo: Identificar el nivel de conocimiento, actitudes y prácticas en la técnica del lavado de manos en personal de salud en un hospital pediátrico de La Habana. Metodología: Estudio descriptivo a 145 trabajadores (31,7 por ciento médicos, 35,2 por ciento enfermeros, 22,8 por ciento médicos residentes y 10,3 por ciento estudiantes). De 13 servicios el cuerpo de guardia, sala de respiratorio, cirugía, neurocirugía y quemados, fueron los que más participación tuvieron. El estudio se realizó en tres etapas: 1. Observación directa de la técnica del lavado de manos. 2. Observación de la calidad del lavado de manos mediante lámpara fluorescente. 3. Medida del conocimiento acerca del lavado de manos y actitud mediante encuesta. Resultados: En la primera etapa, el 51,7 por ciento calificó de inadecuado, en la segunda etapa el 64,8 por ciento también tuvo una evaluación inadecuada y en las encuestas, el conocimiento alcanzó solo 52,4 por ciento, considerado inapropiado. La actitud ante esta actividad fue calificada de inadecuado en el 53,1 por ciento, con un mejor porcentaje en el personal de enfermería. Conclusiones: Los conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre el lavado de manos es deficiente, por lo que debe diseñarse un programa de capacitación en todos los niveles, sea pregrado, posgrado o formación continua, donde exista responsabilidad individual de cada profesional sanitario, y se insista en ello(AU)

Introduction: Deficient handwashing is still a problem in hospitals. The compliance of the international recommendations on this matter provides security in the care. Objective: To identify the level of knowledge, attitudes and practices in the technique of handwashing in a pediatric hospital in Havana. Methodology: Descriptive study applied to 145 workers (31.7 percent doctors, 35.2 percent nurses, 22.8 percent residents, and 10.3 percent students) of 13 services. Emergencies, Respiratory, Surgery, Neurosurgery and Caumatology were the services with more participation. The study was conducted in three stages: 1. Direct observation of the technique of handwashing. 2. Quality observation of the handwashing using fluorescent lamp. 3. Extent of knowledge on handwashing and attitudes through survey. Results: In the first stage, the 51.7 percent the handwashing was assessed as inappropriate, in the second stage the 64.8 percent was also evaluated as inadequate, and in the surveys, the 52.4 percent had an incorrect knowledge; the attitude towards this activity was described as inappropriate in the 53.1 percent , with a better percentage in the nursing staff. Conclusions: The knowledge, attitudes and practices on handwashing were poor, so it must be designed a training program at all levels, whether undergraduate, graduate or continuing training, where individual responsibility of each healthcare professional exists, and should be highlithed(AU)

Actualidades en la higiene de manos quirúrgica. Revisión de la literatura / Current trends in hand hygiene for surgery. A literature review / Atualidades na higiene de mãos cirúrgica. Revisão da literatura

Resumen Introducción: La higiene de manos quirúrgica, procedimiento esencial en cirugía; es una técnica que ha evolucionado y se ha ido actualizando tras el surgimiento de evidencia científica. El manual de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) publicado hace diez años es uno de los documentos que plasman cambios de esta técnica, como dejar de usar el cepillo. Sin embargo, es necesario analizar la evidencia actual con la finalidad de reconocer las nuevas tendencias de acuerdo con los resultados de las investigaciones publicadas. Objetivo: Realizar una revisión actualizada de la literatura sobre la higiene de manos quirúrgica. Desarrollo: El lavado de manos quirúrgico con cepillo es un procedimiento que se realiza en la mayoría de las instituciones hospitalarias de México; pocas han incursionado en la técnica en la que se omite el uso de cepillo. Existen diversos estudios que sustentan que el uso de cepillos debe ser erradicado debido al daño tisular que estos ocasionan. La abrasión dérmica provocada por el uso de cepillos origina que el personal se cepille las superficies de las manos y brazos por menos tiempo que el recomendado y esto a su vez impide un efecto idóneo por parte de los antisépticos. Las sustancias más recomendadas son la clorhexidina y las soluciones a base de alcohol. Conclusiones: La higiene de manos quirúrgica sin cepillo debe ser considerada debido a que disminuye costos hospitalarios, garantiza la efectividad de la descontaminación de manos, ocasiona menos lesiones dérmicas y contribuye a la reducción de las infecciones relacionadas al sitio quirúrgico.

Abstract Introduction: Hand hygiene for surgery is an essential clinical procedure whose technique has been evolving as the result of new scientific evidence. The related WHO manuals reflect the changes in this procedure; for example, the now non-binding need of using a brush. Nevertheless, it is necessary to continue analyzing the current evidence in order to recognize the new guidelines which are being established as the result of new published research. Objective: To carry out an updated literature review on hand hygiene for surgery. Development: Hand washing for surgery using a brush has long been a regular practice in Mexican hospitals, however, there are diverse studies which support the omission of brushes due to the tissue damage which these utensils can cause - including dermal abrasions which can make the staff tend to brush their hands and arms for less time in comparison to the recommended standards, resulting in incomplete antiseptic effects. Conclusions: Having in mind that some of the most recommended antiseptic substances are chlorhexidine and alcohol-based gels, hand hygiene for surgery without using a brush should be considered because it can reduce costs, guarantee hands decontamination, generate less dermal lesions, and contribute to the reduction of related surgical site infections.

Resumo Introdução: A higiene de mãos cirúrgica é um procedimento essencial em cirurgia; é uma técnica que evoluiu e se tem ido atualizando trás o surgimento de evidência científica. O manual da OMS publicado faz dez anos é um dos documentos que traduzem as mudanças desta técnica, como é deixar de usar a escova. No entanto, é necessário analisar a evidência atual com a finalidade de reconhecer as novas tendências conforme os resultados das pesquisas publicadas. Objetivo: Realizar uma revisão atualizada da literatura sobre a higiene de mãos cirúrgica. Desenvolvimento: O lavado de mãos cirúrgico com escova é um procedimento que se realiza na maioria das instituições hospitalares do México; poucas incursionaram na técnica na qual se omite o uso de escova. Existem diversos estudos que sustentam que o uso de escovas deve ser erradicado devido ao dano tissular que estes ocasionam. A abrasão dérmica provocada pelo uso de escovas origina que o pessoal se escove as superfícies das mãos e braços por menos tempo que o recomendado e isto por sua vez impede um efeito idóneo por parte dos antissépticos. As sustâncias mais recomendadas são a clorexidina e as soluções a base de álcool. Conclusões: A higiene de mãos cirúrgica sem escova deve ser considerada devido a que diminui custos hospitalares, garante a efetividade da descontaminação de mãos, ocasiona menos lesões dérmicas e contribui à redução das infecções relacionadas ao sítio cirúrgico.

Evaluación del proceso de lavado de manos en el personal médico en formación del posgrado de puericultura y pediatría HUPAZ. Lara

Con el objetivo de evaluar el proceso de lavado de manos en el personal médico en formación del Posgrado de Puericultura y Pediatría que labora en el Hospital Universitario de Pediatría Dr. Agustín Zubillaga, se realizó un estudio descriptivo transversal, tomando como población 67 residentes cuyo promedio de edad fue de 28,57±2,42 años, con predomino del sexo femenino (79,10 %), de los cuales 40,30 % eran cursantes del primer año y 22,39 % laboran en el Servicio de Atención Médica Inmediata. Se aplicó la guía observacional diseñada y validada por Mora y Salazar (2015), obteniendo como resultados que el lavado de manos es beneficioso para los médicos (83,6 %) y para el paciente (86,6 %), a pesar de que no cumplen a cabalidad los cinco momentos y los 11 pasos del lavado de manos. Los factores que influyen en el proceso de lavado de manos son: estructura inadecuada, falta de lavabos cómodos y accesibles (73,1 %), falta de dispensadores de jabón y toallas de papel (88,1 %); además, la institución no cuenta con presupuesto (86,6 %) no realiza capacitaciones sobre higiene de manos, ni cuenta con material gráfico sobre el mismo (91 % y 79,1 %, respectivamente). Los residentes manifestaron que no se realizan evaluaciones (98,5 %), capacitaciones (94 %) y no existen normas escritas y difundidas en los servicios (83,6 %); sin registros e instrumentos de evaluación (98,5 %) y sistema de monitoreo permanente (98,5 %). Se concluye de manera global que casi la totalidad de los residentes del Posgrado de Puericultura y Pediatría afirman que no existe eficiencia y efectividad en el proceso del lavado de manos.

With the objective of evaluating the hand-washing process in the medical personnel in training of the Postgraduate Course of Pediatric and Childhood that works in the University Hospital of Pediatrics Dr. Agustin Zubillaga, a transversal descriptive study was carried out, taking as a population 67 residents whose average of age was 28.57 ± 2.42 years, with predominance of females (79.10 %), of which 40.30 % were students of the first year and 22.39 % work in the Immediate Medical Care Service. The observational guide designed and validated by Mora and Salazar (2015) was applied, obtaining as results that hand washing is beneficial for physicians (83.6 %) and for the patient (86.6 %), despite the fact that they do not fully comply with the five moments and the 11 steps of hand washing. The factors that influence the handwashing process are: inadequate structure, lack of comfortable and accessible toilets (73.1 %), lack of soap dispensers and paper towels (88.1 %); In addition, the institution does not have a budget (86.6 %) does not carry out training on hand hygiene, nor does it have graphic material on it (91 % and 79.1 %, respectively). The residents stated that there are no evaluations (98.5 %), training (94 %) and there are no written rules and disseminated in the services (83.6 %); without records and evaluation instruments (98.5 %) and permanent monitoring system (98.5 %). It is concluded in a global way that almost all the residents of the Postgraduate Course in Child Care and Pediatrics affirm that there is no efficiency and effectiveness in the hand washing process.

[Intervention to improve hand hygiene compliance in Catalonia, Spain]. / Estrategia para mejorar la práctica de higiene de manos en Catalunya.

Hand hygiene (HM) is the single most important measure and effective in reducing the risk of Healthcare acquired infections (IRAS). Although HM is an effective, simple and cheap measure, it is usual to find results of low compliance among health professionals. The main objective of this strategy has been to give new force to the promotion of HM in hospitals and educate professionals about the importance of this single action. The strategy was planned as a multicenter intervention study to promote HM in health centers of Catalonia in 2009-2010. The intervention is based on 4 main areas: a survey of barriers and facilitators, distribution of graphic material, training at different levels and measure of quality indicators. With this strategy a total of 57% of the number of acute beds in the concerted public and private network of hospitals were reached. The survey revealed that training was perceived as the main facilitator of the HM action. 15,376 professionals registered to the on-line training. The overall compliance with HM indications (based on "five moments for HM") was 56.45% in the acute areas. The campaigns and programs to promote HM carried out in the last four years in Catalonia has helped to achieve an increasing number of hospitals associated to the strategy of the Alliance for Patient Safety in Catalonia. The on-line curse acceptance was very high and seems a powerful tool to improve hand hygiene knowledge and compliance among health professionals. The compliance of HM seems to increase in the hospitals of Catalonia evaluated.

Bioluminiscencia: Herramienta de Medición y Análisis en Lavado de Manos Clínico Aplicado a la Odontología / Bioluminiscence Measurement Tool and Analysis in Clinical Hand Washing Technique Applied to Dentistry

RESUMEN: El estudio fue realizado en 40 estudiantes de ambos sexos, que cursaban 2° año el año 2017 de la carrera de Odontología, en estudiantes de la Universidad de La Frontera. El objetivo fue evaluar la efectividad de la técnica de Lavado de Manos Clínico (LMC) demostrando el grado de eficiencia, mediante Bioluminiscencia. La técnica que permite una medición cuantitativa rápida de los residuos orgánicos de superficie, por la cuantificación de cantidad de Adenosín Trifosfato (ATP). Empleándose un Luminómetro, 3M™ Clean-Trace™, se programó la medición de contaminación en dos puntos claves, región interdigital e hiponiquio, en ambas manos, por medio de la lectura de Unidades Relativas de Luz (URL). Se analizó la contaminación previa a la técnica de LMC y posterior al desarrollo de la técnica, en las regiones indicadas, por medio de Hisopado v/s aprobación/rechazo considerando como Aprobado <250 URL y Rechazado >251 URL., nivel de contaminación v/s sexo, y distribución de aprobación/rechazo tanto antes y después de realizada la técnica de LMC. El muestreo previo al LMC determinó en todas las localizaciones muestreadas existen rangos de aprobación/ rechazo entre 35-42,5 % / 57,5-65 %, encontrándose la mayor contaminación en ambas manos en hiponiquio. Posteriormente de realizada la técnica de LMC el rango de corte de aprobación/rechazo fue de 80-90 % / 10-20 %, el porcentaje más alto se pesquisó en mano izquierda hiponiquio. Para el análisis estadístico se utilizó el programa estadístico SPSS Statistics for Windows, análisis descriptivo, prueba t- test, prueba de Levene. Un valor de p < 0,05 para significancia. Obteniéndose diferencias significativas en análisis del valor la media, según zonas de muestreo y rangos de aprobación/rechazo en URL, que varían entre p=0,000 y p=0,015, que se presentó en mano izquierda zona interdigital posterior al LMC. Según la media concluimos que las regiones hisopadas tanto previas y posteriores a la ejecución del LMC en hiponiquio la piel está más contaminada, que es paradojal ya que la técnica incorpora un acento en esta localización, tiene un mejor acceso y contacto con jabón y agua.

SUMMARY: The study was conducted in 40 undergraduate students of both sexes, who were in the 2nd year of the 2017 year enrolled in the Undergraduate Dentistry Program of the Universidad de La Frontera. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of a Clinical Hand Washing technique (CML), demonstrating the degree of efficiency and implementing improvement behaviors of the technique using Bioluminescence. This technique allows a rapid quantitative measurement of organic residues on a surface by quantifying the amount of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). For that purpose, a Luminometer, 3M™ Clean-Trace™, was used to obtain the contamination level in two key points, Interdigital Region and Hyponychium, of both hands by quantification of Relative Light Units (URL). Hand contamination prior to CML and after the development of the technique was tested in the Interdigital and Hyponychium regions of both hands, through surface ATP swab considering as Approved <250 URL and Rejected > 251 URL. Also, the level of contamination v/s sex, and approval/rejection distribution before and after the CML were tested. The approval/rejection range for pre-CML sampling at all selected locations was 35-42.5 % / 57.5-65 %, fin ding the highest contamination rate in Hyponychium in both hands. After performing the CML we obtained 90 % of approval in all sites, with a 10 % rejection rate; the highest percentage was surveyed on left hand Hyponychium. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistics for Windows, a descriptive analysis, test t-test for independent samples, test of homogeneity of Levene variances. A p value <0.05 was established for statistical significance. There were significant differences in analysis of the mean value, according to sampling zones and URL approval / rejection ranges, ranging from p = 0.000 to p = 0.015 (Interdigital region of left hand, post-LA TÉCNICA DE LMC). The left hand presented greater contamination in both swab areas both before and after the execution of CML. The most contaminated region was the Hyponychium, which was paradoxical, because the technique emphasizes the hygiene of this location and has better access and contact with soap and water.

Método pedagógico para el lavado de manos en estudiantes de Odontología. Facultad de Odontología-UNA. Paraguay 2017 / Pedagogical method for washing hands in dentistry student. School of Dentistry-UNA. Paraguay 2017

Objetivo: Evaluar un método pedagógico para la enseñanza del lavado de manos en estudiantes de Odontología. Metodología: Se recurrió a un diseño cuasi experimental, realizado en 2017 en el que participaron 26 estudiantes del 2do año de la cátedra de Odontología de la Facultad de Odontología de la UNA, previa presentación del consentimiento informado, siendo 92% del sexo femenino y 96% diestros. Se realizó la evaluación del lavado de manos utilizando témpera de la marca Artetesco® de color rojo, la cual fue administrada para que se realice un lavado de uso corriente por el estudiante con los ojos cerrados, el resultado fue registrado y posteriormente se enseñó la técnica sistematizada de lavado de manos y se repitió el procedimiento con el mismo material y aplicando la técnica enseñada. Se aplicaron las pruebas de McNemar y Wilcoxon con un nivel de confianza del 95%. Resultados: Las regiones que demostraron diferencia estadísticamente significativa fueron: Dorso interdigital meñique y anular izquierdo (p=0,021), Dorso interdigital medio e índice izquierdo (p=0,039), Dorso interdigital pulgar-índice derecho (p=0,031), Dorso muñeca izquierda (p0,001), Dorso muñeca derecha (p0,001), Dorso uña medio derecha (p=0,012), Dorso interdigital medio-anular derecha (p=0,012), Palmar muñeca izquierda (p0,001), Palmar muñeca derecha (p0,001).Fue estadísticamente significativa la diferencia a favor de que se mejoró el lavado de manos posterior a la intervención. Conclusiones: Todo procedimiento odontológico está ligado en forma inherente a las prácticas de control de higiene, empezando por la higiene de las manos, una de las formas de incluir en la enseñanza de esta práctica, podría ser la utilización de la témpera, pues visibiliza la calidad de la técnica del lavado de manos. Palabras claves: Estudiantes de Odontología, Lavado de manos, Higiene de las manos.

Aim: To evaluate a pedagogical method for the teaching of handwashing in dentistry students. Methodology: A quasi-experimental design was used, made in 2017,in which 26 students from the 2nd year of the Dentistry Department of the Faculty of Dentistry of the National University of Asunción participated, after presentation of informed consent, being 92% female and 96% right-handed. Hand washing evaluation was performed using the Artetesco® brand of red paint, which was administered to perform a current washing by the student with eyes closed, the result was recorded and later the technique was taught systematized handwashingan drepeated handwashing with the same material and applying the technique taught.TheMcNemar and Wilcoxon tests were applied with a confidence level of 95%. Results: The regions that showed a statistically significant difference were: Interdigital dorsum and left annulus (p=0.021), middle interdigital dorsu. The difference in favor of improving hand washing after the intervention was statistically significant. Conclusions: Every dental procedure is inherently linked to hygiene control practices, starting with hand hygiene, one of the ways to include in the teaching of this practice could be the use of tempera, quality of the handwashing technique. and left index (p=0.039), right interdigital dorsum (p0.001), right side of the wrist (p0.001), right side of the wrist (p0.001), right side of the wrist (p0.001), right side of the wrist (p0.001). Key words: Dentistry students, Hand washing, Hand hygiene