Associations among motor competence, health-related fitness, and physical activity in children: A comparison of gold standard and field-based measures.

This study compared the associations among motor competence, health-related fitness, and physical activity measured by gold standard and field-based methods in children. A total of 248 first-grade children (153 boys) aged 6-7 years participated in the study. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD -2). Gold standard measures were percent body fat using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, peak oxygen uptake per weight using a gas analyser, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity using accelerometers. Field-based measures were body mass index, maximum speed during progressive running on a treadmill, and a physical activity questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis adjusted for age and sex was used to examine the associations of motor competence with one of the health-related variables and compared differences by measurement method. The results indicated that field-based measures models showed lower associations (R2 = 0.02-0.17) than the gold standard (R2 = 0.21-0.27) and lower standardised regression coefficients for sex and motor competence, except for maximum speed. In conclusion, gold standard measures resulted in stronger associations between motor competence, and health-related fitness and physical activity in children. Examining the contribution of motor competence in children's health using field-based tests can underestimate it.

Setting up girls for success in fundamental motor skills: The role of balance in 8-10 year olds.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between postural control and fundamental motor skills in girls. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in 47 girls, aged 8-10 years. Postural control (postural sway centre of pressure) was evaluated during tandem stance, leading with dominant and non-dominant limbs with eyes open and closed, using an AMTI force platform. Fundamental motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition, examining total, locomotor and object control scores. Data were analysed using linear regression, adjusted for body mass index percentile and household income. For locomotor skills, significant relationships were found with a number of postural sway outcomes for adjusted and unadjusted analyses (r - 0.287 to r - 0.425, p ≤ 0.042). Total motor skill score was significantly related to postural sway in the tandem dominant eyes closed condition for unadjusted and adjusted analyses (r ≥ -0.294, p ≤ 0.04). In conclusion, our findings indicate that postural control may be important for fundamental motor skill proficiency and movement quality in pre-adolescent girls, particularly for locomotor skills. Our study provides evidence supporting the clinical practice of assessing postural control in girls presenting with motor skill deficits.

Hybrid Program Based on Virtual and Real Games Increases Fundamental Movement Skills in Children With Intellectual Disability: A Quasi-Experimental Study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two pedagogical strategies in adapted physical education (hybrid virtual/real vs. conventional) on fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children with intellectual disability age 7-10 years. Children with intellectual disability (N = 24) were randomly assigned to either the hybrid (experimental group) or the conventional (control group) group and were evaluated across 10 weeks. The hybrid program was based on virtual and real game situations, while the conventional program was based on adapted sports. FMS were evaluated using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 at pre- and postprogram for both groups. Both programs significantly improve locomotor skills, with significantly better improvement in the experimental group. However, a significant improvement was observed only among the experimental group for object-control skills and gross motor quotient. Based on these results, a hybrid program may be considered for FMS improvement.

Socioecological correlates of perceived motor competence in 5- to 7-year-old Finnish children.

We investigated child, family, and environmental factors associated with young children's perceptions of locomotor (LM) and object control (OC) skills. The participants comprised 472 children (6.22 ± 0.63) and their parents. The children were assessed for their perception of motor competence in LM and OC skills (using the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children), and actual motor competence (Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition and Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder). Anthropometrics were calculated using the children's body mass index standard deviation scores. A parent questionnaire included questions about child factors (sex, child's independent walking age, time spent sedentary and outdoors, participation in organized sport activities, and access to electronic devices), family factors (parent educational level, physical activity frequency, and sedentary behavior), and environmental factors (access to sport facilities). Variance analysis sought to identify age-related differences, and a linear regression model examined correlates of children's perception of LM and OC skills. The children's movement skill perceptions were found to be generally high. Four factors explained 5.7% of the variance in perceptions of LM skills and 7.5% of the variance in perceptions of OC skills. Two factors, lower age and higher actual motor competence, explained most of the children's skill perceptions. Access to electronic devices (less) and Body mass index (BMI) (higher) were associated with perceptions of LM skills. Participation in organized sport activities (higher) and parental education (lower) were associated with perceptions of OC skills. When promoting children's physical activity and motor competence, perceptions of motor competence are an important consideration.

Effects of motor skill interventions on fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID) are characterised by deficits in fundamental movement skills (FMS). In youth with typical development, motor skill interventions have been recognised as an efficient means to improve FMS. However, the effects of these interventions among youth with ID have not yet been systematically reviewed. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present systematic review was to summarise the findings from studies pertaining to the effects of motor skill interventions designed to improve FMS in children and adolescents with ID. METHOD: A systematic literature search (without year restriction) was performed in 12 databases. Studies in press or published in English in a peer-reviewed journal were included if: (1) participants were youth with ID aged 5 to 22; (2) motor skill interventions aimed to improve one or several FMS; and (3) they were experimental, quasi-experimental or pre-experimental. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale was used to assess the quality of the studies. RESULTS: Through the search strategy, 1083 articles were identified, and 14 studies published between 1969 and 2018 met the inclusion criteria. In studies with children, motor skill interventions successfully improved balance skills and overall FMS, whereas mixed and inconclusive results were found for locomotor skills. In studies with adolescents, motor skill interventions were shown to successfully improve balance skills. However, none of the motor skill interventions reviewed focused on locomotor and object control skills. CONCLUSIONS: The reviewed motor skill interventions were effective in improving balance skills in both children and adolescents with ID as well as overall FMS in children with ID. Conversely, the effects of motor skill interventions targeting locomotor and object control skills remain unclear. Therefore, given the relatively small number of studies and their limitations, the present findings need to be interpreted with caution, and further rigorous studies are necessary.

Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: This systematic review is a synthesis of studies concerning: (a) mastery, deficits, and/or delays in fundamental movement skills (FMS) among children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities; (b) comparisons of FMS between children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities and those with typical development (TD); and (c) correlates of FMS. METHOD: A systematic electronic search was performed in 12 databases. Seventeen studies, published between 1951 and 2017, met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Children with intellectual disabilities exhibited a lack of mastery and deficits/developmental delays in FMS. They tended to have significantly lower FMS performance than children with TD. Adolescents with intellectual disabilities had developmental delays in balance skills, but were not compared with adolescents with TD. Mastery or deficits in FMS were not explored. Several variables were significantly correlated with FMS among children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities. CONCLUSION: In future studies, FMS should be examined as an important outcome among children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

Integrating Fundamental Movement Skills and Mathematics in Early Childhood: A Pilot Study.

This project involved a co-design process involving researchers and kindergarten teachers to produce learning activities that integrated fundamental movement skills (FMS) and mathematics. We piloted the co-designed activities (i.e., motor-math program) in a local kindergarten and examined the effects on FMS proficiency, mathematics skills, and accrued physical activity (PA). The participants comprised pupils (N = 39) from two matched kindergarten classes, in which we compared the motor-math program with typical mathematics lessons. All participants wore pedometers to measure their number of steps during class, one day per week. FMS proficiency (i.e., locomotor, object control) and mathematics skills (numeracy, geometry, math problem solving) were measured before and after implementation. Significant improvements in locomotor and object control skills were found only in the pilot group (p < 0.001); there were no differences in the changes in mathematics skills between the pilot and comparison groups. During implementation days, the participants in the pilot group accrued significantly greater step counts (p < 0.001) than those in the comparison group. Participating in the motor-math program appears to have benefits associated with improvements in FMS proficiency and accrued PA time, suggesting a promising potential for integrated activities as a means of PA promotion in kindergarten settings. Future work that examines the effects of the integration of movement with mathematics should consider randomization, greater sample size, and a longer intervention period.

Training Response Abilities of Children With Intellectual Disabilities: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Response abilities, i.e., response time (RT) and response force (RF), which are essential for efficient motor control, are impaired in children with intellectual disabilities (ID). The study aimed to evaluate the effects of object control skills training, computer-based games training, or standard care on the RT and RF of children with ID when measured across task conditions. A randomized controlled trial was conducted in a special education school where 75 children with ID, between 9 and 17 years of age, were randomly assigned to object control skills training, computer-based games training, or standard care, where intervention groups were provided thrice a week for four weeks. The RT and RF were measured using a response analyzer for simple response task, (passive and active) dual-task, and choice response task at baseline, post-intervention, and four-week follow-up. The RT significantly reduced with object control skills training (ηp2= .325) and computer-based games training (ηp2= .159). Participants who received the object control skills training had greater stability in force production than the other groups. With training, children with ID take less time and show better stability in their ability to modulate force in various task settings, with more pronounced effects with the object control skills training.

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Fundamental Movement Skills of Children of Iranian Ethnicities.

Background: Cross-cultural studies can provide information on how different cultural contexts, lifestyles, and physical activity play a role in the development of motor skills. We aimed at a cross-cultural comparison of fundamental movement skills of children of Iranian ethnicities. Methods: The statistical population included boys and girls aged 7 to 9 years from the centers of Tehran (Persian), Lorestan (Lor), Khuzestan (Arab) and Kurdistan (Kurdish) provinces in 2021 year. Overall, 240 people (60 from each province) participated in this research as a sample. Ulric Gross Motor development test (2000) was used to measure the Fundamental Movement skills. Results: Results of multivariate analysis of variance showed that the main effect of culture (ethnicity) and interaction of culture and gender on Loco motor and object control skills were significant (P=0/001). In the total score of fundamental movement skills, the results showed that boys children scored significantly higher than girls (P=0/001). Moreover, Lor and Kurdish children significantly performed better than Fars and Arab children (P=0/001), but no significant difference was observed between the other ethnicities (P=0/452). Conclusion: Differences in the levels of fundamental movement skills of children of different ethnicities may be due to different physical and cultural activities, attitudes, and motor habits.

Associations between Fundamental Movement Skills and Moderate-to-Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity among Chinese Children and Adolescents with Intellectual Disability.

Higher physical activity (PA) levels will obtain more health-related benefits for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). The mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) potentially correlates with PA. This study aimed to examine the associations of FMS with moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) levels in children and adolescents with moderate to severe ID. Moreover, this research analyzes whether there are gender and age differences in the association between these two variables. A total of 93 children and adolescents with ID, aged 8-17 years (mean age = 13.27; SD = 3.35), were recruited from a special school located in western China. The time spent in MVPA was measured using waist-worn accelerometers. FMS proficiency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). Children and adolescents with ID tend to have delayed maturity of FMS patterns (locomotor skills t (92) = -16.91, p < 0.001, d = 2.48; object control skills t (92) = -25.39, p < 0.001, d = 3.72; total FMS t (92) = -21.83, p < 0.001, d = 3.20) and lower proficiency in objective control skills (t (92) = 3.989, p < 0.001, d = 0.29). A significant positive correlation was found between MVPA and FMS, and this association was moderated by gender and age. For boys, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.842, p < 0.01), whereas locomotor skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.472, p < 0.05) for girls. For children with ID, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.736, p < 0.05). Proficiency in FMS has a positive effect on increasing the level of MVPA in children and adolescents with ID. Gender and age factors should be considered when implementing FMS intervention programs.

Examining Relationships among Chinese Preschool Children's Meeting 24-Hour Movement Guidelines and Fundamental Movement Skills.

Background: Few studies have investigated associations between meeting 24-Hour Movement Guidelines and preschool children's fundamental movement skills (FMS). This study aimed to investigate the associations between Chinese preschoolers meeting various combinations of the Guidelines and FMS, as well as examining gender differences across those outcomes. Methods: A total of 322 preschool children (181 boys and 141 girls) aged 3−6 years old were recruited from five early-childhood education and care services in China. Children's 7-day physical activity (PA) was assessed using accelerometry, and screen time (ST) and sleep duration were reported by their parents. FMS were assessed by Test of Gross Motor Development 3. Descriptive statistics and gender differences in children's meeting the Guidelines and FMS were calculated using t-tests for continuous variables and Chi-square tests for categorical variables. Results: Most preschoolers met the sleep and ST guidelines, but only 22.3% met the PA guidelines; 4% of preschoolers did not meet any of the recommendations, while 9.3% met all three recommendations. Boys reported significantly higher compliance with all combined recommendations. There were positive associations between meeting the PA guidelines and both locomotor (ß = 0.49; p < 0.001) and object control skills (ß = 0.21; p < 0.001). A significantly positive relationship was identified between meeting PA + sleep guidelines and locomotor skills (ß = −0.16; p = 0.02). A significantly negative association was observed between preschoolers' meeting sleep + ST guidelines and locomotor skills (ß = 0.31; p = 0.001). Conclusion: Few preschoolers met all three movement behavior guidelines. The findings suggest that PA levels, especially MVPA, are important for the promotion of FMS. Meanwhile, the impacts of ST and sleep on motor development cannot be neglected.

Relationship Between Gross Motor Skills and Inhibitory Control in Preschool Children: A Pilot Study.

Purpose: Gross motor skills (GMS) and inhibitory control (IC) which are both development in preschool stage is significant for preschooler to healthy growth. However, the evidence of relationship between them in preschoolers are still insufficient, most of studies only focus on youth. Thus, the aim of this research is to examine the association between GMS and IC in preschool children. Methods: This cross-sectional study used baseline data from a previous intervention study of preschoolers conducted in 2018. GMS were assessed by using the Test for Gross Motor Development (2nd edition) in preschoolers, which includes two subtests of locomotor and object control skills. Total GMS is calculated from the sum of these two subtests. The Fish Flanker task was used to evaluate both accuracy and reaction time of IC. Multivariate linear regression models were established to analyze the relationships between GMS and IC. Results: A total of 123 preschool-age children (55 girls, 68 boys) were included in the final analysis. After adjusting for confounders, GMS (ß = -8.27 ms, 95%CI: -14.2, -2.34), locomotor (ß = -11.2 ms, 95%CI: -21.43, -0.97), and object control skills (ß = -12.15 ms, 95%CI: -22.07, -2.23) were all negatively related with reaction time of IC. Conclusion: There was a significant negative correlation between gross motor skills and the reaction time of inhibitory control in preschool children. Further research is needed to verify this finding in prospective and experimental studies.

Age and Sex Differences in the State and Relationships between Process and Product Assessments of Fundamental-Motor Skills in Five to Eight-Year-Olds: The ExAMIN Youth SA Study.

Adequate development of Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) at a young age benefit holistic development and positive health outcomes. This study determined age and sex developmental differences in the state and the relationships between process and product assessments of four fundamental-motor skills (FMS) in five to eight-year-olds. An availability sample of 636 children; 291 boys, 345 girls, mean age of 6.8 ± 0.97 years in the North West Province of South Africa participated in the study. Spearman rank order correlations analyzed relationships between assessments, while sex and age differences were examined using independent t-testing and one-way ANOVA. Age showed significant developmental trajectories in all FMS. Older children were found to be more at risk for not learning FMS to mastery, while unique developmental patterns were also established compared to international trends. Strong to moderate significant practical associations (p < 0.05) emerged between process and product assessments in catching (r = 0.79), jumping (r = 0.40) running (r = −0.33) and kicking (r = 0.20), while also confirming that the strength of the associations varies depending upon the skill type. Associations strengthened with increasing age, were higher in girls in all FMS, while associations between behavioral criteria in all FMS also differed between FMS and sexes. These strong associations, need to be taken into consideration during the development of FMS towards obtaining full mastery.

Investigating Relationships between Preschool Children's Perceived Competence, Motor Skills, and Physical Activity: A Cross-Lagged Panel Model.

BACKGROUND: Motor skill competence (MSC) and perceived competence (PC) are primary correlates that are linked with physical activity (PA) participation, yet there is limited evidence of the mutual longitudinal or temporal associations between these variables in preschoolers. Therefore, this study's purpose was to examine the bidirectional relationships between MSC and PA, MSC and PC, and PC and PA in preschoolers over time. METHODS: The final sample were 61 preschoolers (Mage = 4.45 years, ranging from 4 to 5) from two underserved schools. MSC was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2). PC was assessed using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children. PA was assessed using ActiGraph GT9X Link accelerometers during three consecutive school days. All assessments of MSC, PC, and PA were measured in identical conditions at schools at the baseline (T1) and the end of the eighth week (T2). We employed a cross-lagged model approach to understand the bidirectional relationships between MSC, PC, and PA. RESULTS: The results showed that T1 MSC significantly predicted T2 MSC (p < 0.01) and T1 MSC significantly predicted T2 PA only in girls (p = 0.03). Additionally, a cross-lagged effect of T1 MSC and T2 PC was only observed in boys (p = 0.03). Lastly, a significant association for T1 moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and T2 PC was only observed in girls (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Bidirectional relationships between the variables were not observed in preschoolers. However, significant gender differences were observed in each cross-lagged model.

Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary behavior in children with and without developmental coordination disorder: Associations with fundamental movement skills.

BACKGROUND: There is a pandemic of physical inactivity in children. Compared to children with typical development (TD), those with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are less physically active. Mastery of movement skills such as fundamental movement skills (FMS) are potential correlates of physical activity. AIMS: To examine the associations of FMS with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary behavior (SB) in children with DCD and TD. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: This cross-sectional study included 172 children with DCD (n = 73; boys = 49) or TD (n = 99; boys = 48) aged 6-10 years. Five components of FMS (running, jumping, throwing, catching, kicking) were assessed using process- and product- oriented approaches using the Test of Gross Motor Development-second edition. The time spent in MVPA and SB was measured using accelerometers. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Children with DCD had significantly poorer performance in FMS proficiency in terms of specific movement patterns (jumping and catching) and outcomes (running, jumping, catching, and kicking) when compared to children with TD. MVPA and SB were significantly associated with certain process-oriented FMS assessments in children, which was moderated by motor coordination status and sex. Movement patterns of catching (odds ratio = 1.686, p < .05) was a significant predictor of children's attainment of the MVPA guideline. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: It is important to develop FMS patterns and ball skills in early childhood, particularly for children with DCD, to combat physical inactivity and its related health problems.

The Influence of a Table Tennis Physical Activity Program on the Gross Motor Development of Chinese Preschoolers of Different Sexes.

Gross motor locomotion is the basis of various sensory motor locomotion. Interventions helping preschoolers develop gross motor skills (GMS) could provide a solid foundation for complex motor skills. This study analyzed a table tennis physical activity program's influence on preschoolers' GMS development with 104 preschoolers (experimental group (EG): N = 52, 25 boys, 27 girls; control group (CG): N = 52, 25 boys, 27 girls). The EG conducted table tennis physical activities three times per week for 12 weeks. Preschoolers' GMSs were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development (second edition). After 12 weeks, both the male and female EGs had significantly improved scores for GMS, locomotor subtest, gallop, hop, leap, slide, object control subtest, strike a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, overarm throw, and underhand roll (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001). The female EG also showed significant improvement for the run, horizontal jump, and catch in the post-test. Both the male and female EGs significantly outperformed the control group in their post-test scores for GMS, locomotor subtest, object control subtest, strike a stationary ball, overarm throw, and underhand roll (p < 0.05). The female EG also showed significant differences in slide scores (p < 0.05). Therefore, table tennis physical activities can promote preschoolers' GMS development, especially object control skills. The research results provide an empirical basis for preschoolers' physical education. Meanwhile, our findings have important implications for preschoolers' GMS development and table tennis' popularization in Chinese kindergartens.

Competency in Object Control Skills at an Early Age Benefit Future Movement Application: Longitudinal Data from the NW-CHILD Study.

The level of competency in object control skills (OCSs) during early childhood is considered to be a possible determinant of the successful generalization of these skills during later childhood. This study aimed to determine if an association exists between competency in object control skills during early childhood (6-9 years) and the application of these skills during later childhood (12 years). The NW-CHILD longitudinal study (2010-2016), included a baseline and two time-point follow-up measures in grades 1, 4, and 7 of South African children. A total of 374 participants (boys = 178, 47.59% and girls = 196, 52.41%) completed testing at all three time-points and were analyzed. The Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition, and the Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment were used to determine associations between object control skill competency during early and later childhood by using descriptive statistics, Spearman rank order correlations, and stepwise regression analysis. The level of object control skill competency at 6 and 9 years, significantly influences the application of these skills at 12 years. A high overall and significant contribution of OCS (4.6%, p < 0.01) to the variance in the skills and time scores at 12 years; p < 0.05 were found. Competence in object control skills at an early age can provide a baseline from where opportunities for progression or transfer of skills can result in more advanced skillful executions which consequently can be considered to be a cornerstone of improved future physical activity and healthier lifestyles.

Motor Development among Spanish Preschool Children.

The purpose of this study was to analyze motor development of Spanish preschoolers, taking into account sex and age, being an only child, prematurity, and the practice of extracurricular activities. The sample was composed of 300 preschoolers (132 girls, 168 boys) ages 3 to 6 years. Preschoolers were tested on 12 fundamental motor skills (locomotor and object control) through the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition (TGMD-2). Nonparametric analysis indicated that there are differences between girls and boys in locomotor and object control skills in the age range of 3-4 years. However, boys and girls scored similarly at the age of 5 years in locomotor development. There were not differences between only children and those who are not only children. Similarly, prematurity was not associated with locomotor and object control development. Nevertheless, those preschoolers who practice extracurricular physical activities scored significantly higher in comparison with those children do not. Further research is needed to shed light on the differences between boys and girls in object control. It may be explained by the types of extracurricular activities.

Effect of Active Video Games on Healthy Children's Fundamental Motor Skills and Physical Fitness: A Systematic Review.

Objective: The present study aimed to synthesize the most updated literature regarding the casual evidence of the effects of active video games (AVGs) on fundamental motor skills (FMS; locomotor skills and object control skills) and physical fitness among healthy children. Methods: Electronic databases were searched through October 2020. Peer-reviewed randomized control trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs examining the effectiveness of AVGs on FMS and physical fitness development among healthy children (3-12 years) were screened. Results: A total of nine RCTs and one quasi-experimental study were included. Of the five studies examining the effect of AVGs on FMS, two reported significant improvements, while three reported no significant improvements in motor skills development as compared to control. Of the five studies assessing the effects of AVGs on physical fitness, four reported significant improvements in physical fitness such as balance, agility, and speed, whereas one reported significant improvements in skill-related executive function, but not in physical competence. Conclusions: Overall, the current available evidence supports AVGs as an effective means to improve physical fitness, such as balance, postural stability, and agility, among healthy children. However, the findings of AVGs on healthy children's object control and locomotor skills remain inconclusive.

Effects of Developmental Task Constraints on Kinematic Synergies during Catching in Children with Developmental Delays.

The aim of this study was to examine effects of a task intervention on kinematic synergies in catching. Participants were young children (5.58 ± 0.52 years) with the lowest scores on two-hand catching, according to assessments with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and were allocated into two groups. The constraints group took part in an 8-week intervention, whereas the control group experienced a typical physical education. Both groups were assessed with motor development and kinematic coordination measures with a catching task with a ball thrown from 2 m distance. Kinematic variables were recorded using a wireless motion capture system. A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to measure the kinematic synergies formed among active body parts. Two synergies that emerged in catching were mainly utilised for "reaching" and "catching" the ball. The control group tended to re-organise the majority of active body parts into two functional units in all phases, whereas the constraints group adapted their active parts into functional units according to the requirement of the novel movement in the transfer task. The findings of this study suggested that task constraints could facilitate object control by re-organisation of active body parts into functional synergies to achieve successful performance.