The importance of marshes providing soil stabilization to resist fast-flow erosion in case of a dike breach.

Salt marshes provide valuable ecosystem services including coastal protection by reducing wave loading on dikes and seawalls. If the topsoil is erosion resistant to fast-flowing water, it may also reduce breach depth if a dike fails. In this experiment, we quantified the topsoil erosion resistance from marshes and bare tidal flats with different soil types to understand the extent to which they can help reduce breach depth. Intact soil samples were collected from 11 locations in the Netherlands at different tidal elevations and then exposed for 3 h to 2.3 m/s currents. To the samples that remained stable after flow exposure, an artificial crack was made to test their stability following soil disturbance. All samples from the tidal flats were completely eroded, regardless of sediment type. In contrast, all samples from well-established marsh plateaus were stable as long as no disturbances were made, including those with sandy subsoils. After creating artificial cracks, samples with a thin cohesive top layer on top of sandy subsoil collapsed, while marshes with silty subsoils remained stable. Pioneer marshes on sandy substrate without a cohesive top layer were the only vegetated soils that completely eroded. The lower erosion of marshes with either sandy or silty soils compared to bare tidal flats was best explained by the presence of a top layer with belowground biomass, high organic content, high water content, and low bulk density. When analyzing the erodibility of marshes only, fine root density was the best predictor of erosion resistance. This study demonstrates the importance of preserving, restoring, or creating salt marshes, to obtain a topsoil that is erosion resistant under fast-flowing water, which helps reduce breach dimensions if a dike fails. The probability of topsoil erosion in established marshes with sandy subsoil is higher than in silty marshes. A silty layer of cohesive sediment on top of the sand provides extra erosion resistance as long as it does not break. Pioneer marshes that have not developed a cohesive top layer are erosion sensitive, especially in sandy soils. For future marsh creations, using fine-grained sediments or a mixture of sand with silt or clay is recommended.

Anisotomous dichotomy results from an unequal bifurcation of the original shoot apical meristem in Diphasiastrum digitatum (Lycopodiaceae).

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Two types of dichotomy are recognized in Lycopodiaceae: isotomous (equal) and anisotomous (unequal). Anisotomous dichotomy (anisotomy) has been hypothesized to result from unequal growth of an equal bifurcation of the original shoot apical meristem (SAM). Diphasiastrum digitatum (Lycopodiaceae) exhibits anisotomy at various locations. We thus used D. digitatum to test this classic hypothesis about anisotomy. METHODS: Transverse areas of original and derived SAMs of anisotomy exhibited by the rhizome and the vertical aerial vegetative stem were measured using scanning electron microscopy. The difference between half of the original SAM and one derived SAM in terms of transverse area were compared using paired t-tests. KEY RESULTS: During the anisotomy exhibited by the rhizome SAM, 77.4% of the transverse area of the original rhizome SAM contributed to the derived rhizome SAM. During the first anisotomy exhibited by the vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM, 66.2% of the transverse area of the original vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM contributed to the derived vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM. During the second anisotomy exhibited by the vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM, 49.4% of the transverse area of the original vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM contributed to the derived vertical aerial vegetative stem SAM. Nonetheless, the shape of the two derived SAMs differed though they did not differ in size. CONCLUSIONS: In D. digitatum, anisotomy results from an unequal bifurcation of the original SAM. This finding sheds light on plant body architecture evolution as well as plant organ (megaphyllous leaf) evolution.

Modeling Finite-Time Failure Probabilities in Risk Analysis Applications.

In this article, we introduce a framework for analyzing the risk of systems failure based on estimating the failure probability. The latter is defined as the probability that a certain risk process, characterizing the operations of a system, reaches a possibly time-dependent critical risk level within a finite-time interval. Under general assumptions, we define two dually connected models for the risk process and derive explicit expressions for the failure probability and also the joint probability of the time of the occurrence of failure and the excess of the risk process over the risk level. We illustrate how these probabilistic models and results can be successfully applied in several important areas of risk analysis, among which are systems reliability, inventory management, flood control via dam management, infectious disease spread, and financial insolvency. Numerical illustrations are also presented.

Groundwater discharge and bank overtopping drive large carbon exports from Indian Sundarban mangroves.

The Sundarbans represent the largest mangrove system on Earth, covering >10,000 km2. These mangroves can export a vast amount of aquatic carbon that can be potentially sequestered for millennia. However, the mechanisms that drive these processes remain poorly constrained. Here, we estimate porewater-driven carbon exchange between the Sundarbans and the Bay of Bengal using high-resolution time series and a radon groundwater mass balance approach spanning a neap-spring tidal cycle. Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) increased from neap to spring tides by 352 % up to a maximum of 65.6 cm d-1 largely driven by creek bank overtopping after the mid-tide. Exports of dissolved organic and inorganic carbon and alkalinity doubled between neap and spring, likely due to the 'first flush' of older porewater in the mangrove flats. Groundwater discharge was a significant driver of the net carbon export, contributing up to 86.7 % of DIC and 74.0 % of alkalinity during the spring tide while contributing a lower proportion of DOC (4 %-23 %). If these results are representative of the Sundarbans more broadly, carbon fluxes from the Sundarbans would be more than an order of magnitude higher than some of the world's largest rivers on an areal basis, highlighting the importance of Sundarbans mangroves to global oceanic carbon budgets.

Comparison of wave overtopping estimation models for urban beaches. Towards an early warning system on the Basque coast.

This study compares the performance of different wave overtopping estimation models at urban beaches. The models selected for comparison are the Mase et al. (2013) and EurOtop parametric models and the XBeach process-based model in surfbeat and non-hydrostatic mode. Seven energetic storms are selected between 2015 and 2022 with offshore significant wave height ranging between 3 m and 8 m and peak period between 12 s and 20 s to perform the model comparison. The information required to run and validate the models (beach slope, shoreface shape, absence/presence of overtopping) was collected for each storm from coastal videometry. To account for the uncertainties derived from the incident waves randomness and the bathymetry shape when using the process-based model, a series of simulations with random seed boundary conditions were run over two different realistic profile shapes for each storm. The present study is a pilot study on the beach of Zarautz; however, it can be extended to other beaches of the Basque coast. Results indicate that while Mase et al. (2013) and EurOtop tend to reasonably predict the absence or presence of overtopping events, they tend to underestimate the hazard level at the beach of Zarautz. Additionally, the beach underwater profile shape can affect the process-based model performance at intermediate intensity storms and to a lesser extend during moderate storms. Finally, the hazard level at the beach of Zarautz varies significantly alongshore due to the configuration of the seawall, highlighting the need for local adaptation measures. Considering that there is no model that systematically performs better than others, it might be reasonable to use model assemble techniques to draw conclusions from a probabilistic perspective.

Experimental study on overtopping dam-break of a tailing reservoir under extreme conditions.

There is a high risk of dam breakage in tailing reservoirs under extreme conditions. Once a dam breaks, it causes serious pollution to the surrounding ecological environment. To explore the effects of a tailings dam break under extreme conditions (flood conditions, drainage failure, flood discharge failure, and dam saturation), the mechanism underlying an overtopping dam break must be accurately understood. In this study, fine-grained tailings and perlite were selected to create composite model sand, and a prototype tailing reservoir was restored at a scale of 1:200. Furthermore, the dam-break process and results were analyzed and summarized by performing an overtopping dam-break test on the tailing reservoir under extreme conditions. The results show that the tailing discharge process has a high sand content, strong sand-carrying capacity, and high speed. The amount of model sand discharge accounted for 15.13% of the total storage capacity, and the amount of tailings deposition in the downstream area accounted for 95.21% of the discharge, which were both greater than the results of similar physical model tests and actual tailings dam failure accidents. An overtopping dam break in a tailing pond is a progressively destructive process. The dam break mechanism can be divided into two stages: prior breach penetration and subsequent breach horizontal expansion. In the process of a tailings dam break, the motion state of the tailings particles is transformed between the bed-load and suspended-load movement states. These results can provide important reference for the reinforcement of mine management and the formulation of preventive measures, which are essential to improving the safety of tailings reservoirs and protecting the ecological environment.

Numerical Investigation of Overtopping Prevention for Optimal Safety Dike Design.

Leakage accidents at chemical facilities have a negative impact on both the environment and human life, and the government has established and implemented regulations on dikes in order to minimize such accidents. However, the overtopping phenomenon in which chemicals overflow the dike due to catastrophic leakage requires additional safeguards. In this study, the mitigation effect was confirmed by simulating tanks and dikes using various deflector plates to minimize the effect of spilled chemicals. ANSYS Fluent 19.1, a computational fluid dynamics program, was used, and the overtopping effect was compared with a dike design that satisfies the safety regulations using a volume of fluid (VOF) model that analyzes multiphase flow through a surface tracking technique. Nitric acid and sulfuric acid were used in the study; they were selected because they are frequently involved in leakage accidents. In the event of a leak in a liquid tank, a dike with a deflector plate was very effective in reducing overtopping, and a deflector at a 45° angle was more effective than a 30° deflector. However, it is necessary to install additional safeguards at the joint between the dike and the deflection plate to withstand the force of the liquid.

Circadian leaf movements facilitate overtopping of neighbors.

Many plants exhibit circadian clock-driven leaf movements whereby the leaves are raised during the day to achieve a relatively high angle during the evening, before lowering late in the night. Such leaf movements were first recorded over 2000 years ago but there is still much debate as to their purpose. We investigated whether such leaf movements within Arabidopsis, a ruderal rosette plant, can aid in overtopping leaves of neighboring plants. Wild type and circadian clock mutant plants were grown in an alternating grid system so that their leaves would meet as the plants grew. Experiments were performed using day lengths that matched the endogenous rhythm of either wild type or mutant. Plants grown in a day length shorter than their endogenous rhythm were consistently overtopped by plants which were in synchrony with the day night cycle, demonstrating a clear overtopping advantage resulting from circadian leaf movement rhythms. Furthermore, we found that this leaf overtopping as a result of correctly synchronized circadian leaf movements is additive to leaf overtopping due to shade avoidance. Curiously, this did not apply to plants grown in a day length longer than their endogenous period. Plants grown in a day length longer than their endogenous period were able to adapt their leaf rhythms and suffered no overtopping disadvantage. Crucially, our results show that, in a context-dependent manner, circadian clock-driven leaf movements in resonance with the external light/dark cycle can facilitate overtopping of the leaves of neighboring plants.