First occurrence of Psammophis (Serpentes) from Europe witnesses another Messinian herpetofaunal dispersal from Africa - biogeographic implications and a discussion of the vertebral morphology of psammophiid snakes.

We here describe abundant new snake material from the late Miocene (MN 13) of Salobreña, Spain. Vertebral morphology suggests a referral of the specimens to the extant psammophiid Psammophis, documenting the first occurrence of this genus in Europe. The diversity and disparity across the vertebral morphology of different psammophiid genera are discussed. We identify vertebral features that could diagnose Psammophis and therefore enable the recognition of the genus in the fossil record. A comparison of the new Spanish form with other taxa is conducted. We provide a detailed review of the psammophiid fossil record. Material previously described from the middle Miocene of Beni Mellal, Morocco is here tentatively referred to as ?Psammophis sp., an action that renders that occurrence as the oldest (probable) record of the genus and Psammophiidae as a whole, providing thus a potential calibration point. On the other hand, Eastern European Pliocene material that had been previously supposedly referred to Psammophis is here discarded as being rather fragmentary, not affording any more precise determination. The two psammophiid genera Psammophis and Malpolon appear almost simultaneously in the European fossil record (MN 13), with the former achieving only a short-lived and apparently geographically limited distribution in the continent, while the latter still exists in its modern herpetofauna. We assess biogeographic implications of the new find, suggesting a direct dispersal event from northwestern Africa to the Iberian Peninsula during the late Miocene, facilitated by the Messinian Salinity Crisis.

Two case reports of local envenoming by the Spotted grass snake, Psammophylax rhombeatus (Linnæus, 1758) (Serpentes, Psammophiidae).

Two cases of bites by a South African psammophiid snake, Psammophylax rhombeatus, are described and analyzed. These are the first detailed reports of local envenoming by a Psammophylax spp. While handling a wild-collected 1 m P. rhombeatus, the snake inflicted a protracted bite proximal to the metacarpophalangeal joint of digit #5, left hand of a 24-year-old male amateur herpetologist. Local edema persisted for three days, but no pain or other signs or symptoms including non-specific autonomic effects (e.g. headache, nausea) occurred. In a second case, a 28-year-old male herpetologist-photographer was repositioning a 0.58 m female P. rhombeatus in order to photograph the snake and her egg clutch, when the snake bit the metacarpophalangeal joint of digit #5, left hand, and briefly advanced its jaws. The bite caused mild local pain, progressive edema of the left hand, and arthralgia; resolution required almost 1 week. Bites from non-front-fanged snakes such as these by P. rhombeatus are uncommonly reported in comparison with those described for front-fanged snakes (e.g. Viperidae, Elapidae). Therefore, documentation of bites even with minimal effects provides information essential for the construction of an accurate medical risk profile for these less-known species.

Local envenoming by the Schokari sand racer, Psammophis schokari Forskål, 1775 (Serpentes, Psammophiidae) and a brief review of reported bites by sand racers (Psammophis spp.).

A recent case of a bite by a psammophiid snake, Psammophis schokari, is described and analyzed. This is the first report of local envenoming by this species. The 1 m long P. schokari inflicted a protracted bite on the third digit, right hand of the male 59 year-old victim who developed mild, but locally progressive edema and persistent pain; full resolution required almost three months. All documented cases of bites by snakes of the genus Psammophis are briefly reviewed and discussed. Finally, we encourage the use of a standardized method to describe the observed symptoms of bites by non-front-fanged colubroid snakes (NFFCs). Such bites are rare compared to those described for front-fanged snakes (e.g. Viperidae, Elapidae). Published data are still often comprised of anecdote or second-hand information. Whenever possible, formal medical evaluation of victims bitten by NFFCs should be performed in order to establish a medical risk and management profile for each species.