The bi-directional relationships between diversified leisure activity participation and cognitive function in older adults in China: separating between-person effects from within-person effects.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the bi-directorial association between diversified leisure activity participation and cognitive function over a 7-year period. METHODS: Data analyzed was from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS), a large-scale longitudinal national study. The baseline survey was conducted in 2011 with follow-up every three years. We traced a total of 2718 participants over a period of 7 years. We used adjusted random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) to examine the bi-directorial associations between diversified leisure activity participation and cognitive function. RESULTS: We observed bi-directorial associations between diversity of leisure activity and cognitive function across waves at the between-person and within-person levels. The adjusted random intercept cross-lagged panel models fitted the data appropriately, and the 3-year cross-lagged effects of prior diversified leisure activity participation on cognitive function (ß = 0.058, p < 0.01) and cognitive function on subsequent diversified leisure activity participation (ß = 0.047, p < 0.05) were significant. The results remained after adjusting the model for baseline sex, age, educational level, marital status and current residence, the number of chronic diseases, ADL, depressive symptoms, sleep quality, smoking, and drinking. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that a reciprocal causality relationship between diversified leisure activity participation and cognitive function, indicating a "positive circle" that further promotes cognition over time.

The dynamic and reciprocal relationship between perceived everyday discrimination and cognitive function in later life.

OBJECTIVES: This study, based on socioemotional selectivity theory and cognitive theory, investigates the dynamic and reciprocal relationship between perceived discrimination and cognitive function in later life. METHODS: Data were drawn from four waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018). A total of 4,125 people who were 51 and older were included. Cognitive function was measured by the telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS-27). Perceived discrimination was measured using scores of the perceived everyday discrimination scale. Random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) was utilized. The model was adjusted for a range of covariates. Subgroup analysis by ethnoracial groups was conducted. RESULTS: Cross-sectionally, while lower cognitive function was associated with higher perceived discrimination, this relationship was unidirectional. Longitudinally, higher perceived discrimination predicted lower cognitive function in later waves only among non-Hispanic White individuals. CONCLUSION: Results suggested that a decline in cognitive function may precede and contribute to the worsening of perceived discrimination, which may result in further decline in cognitive function. Lifetime experience of discrimination was discussed as a possible source of the racial/ethnic variations in the relationship. Further study is needed to examine whether this relationship holds among people with cognitive impairment and dementia.

Longitudinal Associations Between Interpersonal Distrust and Social Aggression During College: Disentangling the Within-Person Process from Stable Between-Person Differences.

There is a dearth of information on the relationship between interpersonal distrust and social aggression in the youth, although both may lead to negative interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, scholars have not explored whether interpersonal distrust influences later social aggression over time at the within-person level. This study used five wave longitudinal data to investigate the longitudinal association between interpersonal distrust and social aggression and the role of hostile attribution bias in this relationship; notably, it used a relatively rigorous approach-the random intercept cross-lagged panel model-to disentangle within-person processes from stable between-person differences. The final number of participants included 1053 undergraduate students (677 female students and 376 male students), and 64.3% were female students, with a mean age of 18.45 years (SD = 0.95) at first measurement. Participants completed assessments for interpersonal distrust, hostile attribution bias, and social aggression at five time points across 6-month intervals. At the within-person level, the results revealed that interpersonal distrust was a predictor of later social aggression and that hostile attribution bias acted as a longitudinal mediator in this relationship. This result indicates that to enhance interpersonal harmony and reduce individual hostility and aggression toward others, intervention programs should aim to reduce interpersonal distrust.

Longitudinal Associations Between Reactive and Proactive Aggression and Depression in Early Adolescence: Between- and Within-Person Effects.

Depressive symptoms and aggression often co-occur, and previous studies have found different bidirectional links between depressive symptoms and aggression, suggesting inconsistent developmental cascades. Moreover, it is unclear whether different functions of aggression are differentially associated with depressive symptoms over time. The present study examined the longitudinal associations of reactive and proactive aggression with depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Adolescents (n = 942, 50.7% girls; mean age = 12.54 years, SD = 0.42) were surveyed annually over three years (2019-2021). Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were used to disentangle between- and within-person effects. The results showed moderate between-person associations of depressive symptoms with the two aggressive functions. And depressive symptoms were more highly associated with reactive aggression than with proactive aggression. However, the state-level bidirectional cross-lagged associations between reactive and proactive aggression and depressive symptoms were not significant. This study highlights the stable trait-like association between depressive symptoms and reactive aggression, and the absence of state-level bidirectional cross-lagged associations challenges previous developmental cascades in adolescents.

Self-Esteem and Income Over Time.

There is robust evidence that people with higher incomes tend to have higher self-esteem, but little is known about how changes in income and self-esteem are related within individuals. Some theories predict that increased earnings lead to higher self-esteem, others that increased self-esteem leads to higher earnings, and still others that there should be no within-person associations between these variables. We tested these theories in 4-year longitudinal data from more than 4,000 adult participants from a Dutch representative sample. Results indicated significant between-person associations between income and self-esteem, consistent with prior research. Within-person effects suggested that increases in self-esteem are a function of previous increases in income more than the other way around. These links held when analyses controlled for employment status, and they generalized across gender, age, and educational background. Overall, the findings provide evidence for theories that consider self-esteem as both a source and a consequence of personal earnings.

Associations Between Internalized and Anticipated HIV Stigma and Depression Symptoms Among People Living with HIV in China: A four-wave Longitudinal Model.

Previous research has documented that HIV-related stigma (e.g., internalized and anticipated stigma) is detrimental to the mental health of people living with HIV (PLWH). However, longitudinal data on the bidirectional relationship between HIV-related stigma and depression symptoms are limited. The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional association among internalized and anticipated HIV stigma and depression symptoms among Chinese PLWH. A four-wave longitudinal design (6 months intervals) was employed among 1,111 Chinese PLWH (Mage = 38.58, SD = 9.16, age range: 18-60 years; 64.1% men). The bidirectional model was examined using a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), which evaluated the within- and between-person effects of study variables. At the within-person level, results indicated that depression symptoms at T2 mediated the linkage between internalized HIV stigma at T1 and anticipated HIV stigma at T3, and that anticipated HIV stigma at both T2 and T3 mediated the relationship between depression symptoms at the previous time point and internalized HIV stigma at the subsequent time point. Furthermore, a bidirectional association was found between anticipated HIV stigma and depression symptoms across four waves. At the between-person level, internalized and anticipated HIV stigma were significantly associated with depression symptoms. This study highlights the complex interplay between different forms of HIV-related stigma and mental health problems among PLWH and underscores the importance of considering the bidirectional relationship between the development of psychopathology and stigmatization process in clinical practice.

Prospective within-family bidirectional effects between parental emotion socialization practices and Chinese adolescents' psychosocial adjustment.

Previous research indicates that parental emotion socialization (ES) practices play important roles in adolescents' social and emotional development. However, longitudinal studies testing bidirectional effects are relatively scarce. Additionally, most studies have focused on people from Western societies. In the current 3-year, multi-informant, longitudinal study of Chinese adolescents and their parents, we investigated prospective bidirectional effects between parental positive ES practices and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms). Adolescents (N = 710 at T1, 50% boys, Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.59) reported on parental positive ES practices and their own depressive symptoms and self-esteem when they were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grade. Mothers and fathers reported on their own use of positive ES practices at all three time points. We utilized a random intercept cross-lagged panel model to examine between- and within-family effects. Overall results showed robust effects of adolescent depressive symptoms on parental positive ES practices and bidirectional effects between parental ES and adolescent self-esteem. Effects differed by informants whether using adolescent-perceived data, or mother- or father-reported data. However, these child effects and bidirectional effects did not differ by adolescent sex. Our findings add to the understanding of parental ES and adolescent psychosocial adjustment.

Mapping the associations of daily pain, sleep, and psychological distress in a U.S. sample.

Chronic pain, sleep problems, and psychological distress (PD) can be disabling conditions and previous research has shown that they are associated. The nuances of the comorbid nature of these conditions may be important to understand for those who treat these conditions. This study examined the bidirectional associations of these health factors concurrently and over time in a sample of U.S. adults (N = 1,008, Mage = 57.68) from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study. Participants reported on their daily pain, sleep quantity, and psychological distress over eight days. A modified Random Intercept Cross-lagged Panel Model was used to analyze the relations, starting with the whole sample and then a comparison of those with and without chronic pain. Results indicated that nightly variation in sleep quantity predicted next day psychological distress for both groups. Sleep quantity also predicted next-day pain, but only for individuals with chronic pain. Associations between pain and psychological distress were found both at the daily level and individual (between-person) level. This between-person association was stronger for those with chronic pain. The lagged associations between sleep, and both pain and psychological distress for the chronic pain group indicate that, increased quantity of sleep predicts decreased next-day pain and psychological distress. Providers could consider this unidirectional lagged relationship when prioritizing treatment for patients with these comorbid conditions. Future research may examine whether responsive, just-in-time treatments might intervene after participants wake from a poor night's sleep to counteract the negative effects of reduced sleep on PD and pain.

Perceptions of Parental Privacy Invasion and Information Management among Chinese Adolescents: Comparing Between- and Within-Family Associations.

The traditional Chinese conceptualization of family privacy is interdependent and hierarchically structured, but mounting evidence suggests that contemporary Chinese youth hold strong desires for individual privacy and respond defensively to perceived parental privacy invasions. The current research examined within-person associations among adolescents' perceptions of parental privacy invasion, secrecy, and disclosure to parents in the Chinese context. This study collected data from 289 Chinese youth (MageT1 = 13.57, SD = 0.63, 50.30% male) at six-month intervals over one year. Random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM) showed that stronger perceptions of parental invasion predicted later within-person decreases in adolescents' disclosure and increases in secrecy. Disclosure and secrecy did not predict later perceptions of parental invasion at the within-person level. The findings suggest that Chinese youth manage privacy reactively and defensively when feelings of invasion occur, by decreasing disclosure and increasing secrecy. Stereotypes portraying Chinese youth as highly deferential to parents' demands for informational access might not be representative of adolescents in contemporary society.

Bidirectional associations between self-regulation and deviance from adolescence to adulthood.

Self-regulation is considered a major predictor of crime and deviant behavior. However, longitudinal research investigating these associations, frequently looked only at the effect of self-regulation on deviant behavior, but not the other way around. The current study argued that deviance may contribute to later problems in self-regulation, and examined bidirectional associations, comparing a unidirectional and bidirectional model of associations between these variables. A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model and eight data waves from 772 participants, aged 10-12 years to 30 years were used. Results showed that a bidirectional model fit the data better than a unidirectional model. The final model revealed an influence of deviance on self-regulation mainly in adolescence, whereas self-regulation influenced deviance only over two time points in adulthood. The results suggest that, in adolescence, problems in self-regulation may follow, rather than precede deviant behavior. Thus, decreasing deviant behavior or intervening in the aftermaths of deviant behavior in adolescence might have a positive effect on self-regulation in young adulthood, lowering the chance of adult deviant behavior. The current study shows that the long-presumed directionality of self-regulation to deviance can lead to bias, and more rigorous longitudinal research is needed in order to further inform theory and practice.

The longitudinal interplay of depressive symptoms and loneliness: causal effects work in both directions and decay to zero before six years.

Objective: Prior research on the longitudinal associations between depressive symptoms and loneliness has conflated between-person and within-person effects, resulting in confusion over causal influences. The present study used the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to disentangle between-person from within-person sources of variance.Method: The study used a representative sample of adults older than 40 years from the German Ageing Survey (DEAS). To examine the influence of time lag on the strength of the predictive paths, analyses were conducted with lags of 3 and 6 years.Results: The results showed that, at the within-person level, auto-regressive and cross-lagged paths were significant with lag length of 3 years but not 6 years.Conclusion: It can be concluded that there is a reciprocal relationship between the variables that operates at intervals shorter than 6 years. However, the stable trait-like components of the variables account for much of the covariance between them. Recommendations include paying more attention to the factors that contribute to the stability of the 2 variables across time and situation in addition to short-term and symptom-focused interventions.

Self-esteem predicts positive affect directly and self-efficacy indirectly: a 10-year longitudinal study.

Self-esteem (a positive attitude toward oneself) and self-efficacy (confidence in one's ability to perform actions that lead to desired outcomes) are predictors of affective well-being. However, there is a lack of longitudinal research on their relative importance in predicting positive and negative affect. This study sought to examine the relative strength of these 2 variables in predicting affective well-being. Data from the German Aging Survey (DEAS), collected in 4 waves between 2008 and 2017, were used. The random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was used for data analysis. Within-person results showed that self-esteem and self-efficacy did not predict future levels of negative affect. Self-esteem, but not self-efficacy, was found to be a predictor of future levels of positive affect. In addition, positive affect predicted future self-efficacy. A longitudinal mediation model showed that self-esteem predicted future self-efficacy via positive affect. Thus, self-esteem contributes directly to future levels of positive affect and indirectly to future levels of self-efficacy.

Exploring the temporal associations between avoidance behavior and cognitions during the course of cognitive behavioral therapy for clients with symptoms of social anxiety disorder.

OBJECTIVES: In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for social anxiety disorder (SAD), avoidance behavior (AB) and cognitions (COG) are two important targets of intervention, but so far no studies have directly examined their relative importance. By means of cross-lagged panel models (CLPM), we examined their temporal associations and impacts on outcome in clients with symptoms of SAD while addressing typical methodological challenges. METHOD: We used data from the first six therapy sessions in a sample of 428 primary care clients (mean [SD] age = 34.6 [12.2], 34.3% men), participating in the Prompt Mental Health Care trial. Session-by-session data was collected on AB, COG, depression and general anxiety. Competing multiple indicator CLPMs were tested. RESULTS: The Random Intercept-CLPM provided best fit, and indicated that AB predicted COG at subsequent time points (.39 ≤ ß ≤ .42 for T2-T5, p < .05), but not vice versa. In addition, AB, but not COG, predicted clients' general anxiety score at subsequent time points. Results were both robust to the inclusion of depressive symptoms as a within-level covariate, and sensitivity tests for stationarity and missing data assumptions. CONCLUSION: Targeting avoidance behavior for primary care clients with symptoms of SAD may be more vital for the optimal effect of CBT than targeting cognitions. Methodological considerations and limitations of the study are discussed.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03238872.

Disentangling the Longitudinal Relationship between Loneliness and Depressive Symptoms in U.S. Adults Over 50.

OBJECTIVES: A seminal study on loneliness and depression suggested that loneliness influences depression more than the reverse. However, the study's analytic method has since been criticized for failing to account for the trait-like nature of variables. This study aimed to examine the longitudinal relationship between loneliness and depressive symptoms while accounting for the trait-like nature of both variables. METHODS: Data (n = 16,478) came from the Health and Retirement Study (2006-2016). Measures included the Hughes Loneliness Scale and a modified Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (loneliness item omitted). Analyses consisted of random intercepts cross-lagged panel models (three time-points evenly spaced across eight years). RESULTS: There was evidence that loneliness and depressive symptoms are trait-like and these trait-like components are strongly associated. There was not evidence of cross-lagged effects between loneliness and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: A tendency toward loneliness corresponded with a tendency toward depressive symptoms. However, deviations in one's typical level of loneliness did not predict deviations in one's typical level of depressive symptoms or vice-versa. These findings do not support past assertions that loneliness shapes subsequent depression more than the reverse. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: By middle to late adulthood, loneliness and depressive symptoms are trait-like phenomena that are strongly associated.

Bidirectional relationship between chronic pain and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the bidirectional association between chronic pain and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older adults from two prospective cohort studies. METHODS: We used prospective data (12y of follow-up) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (n = 9149, 5018 women, 65.0 ± 10.2y) and the Health and Retirement Study (n = 16,883, 9810 women, 66.9 ± 10.3y), including data from seven waves of each cohort between 2006 and 2018/2019. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Centre of Epidemiological Studies Depression scale, while chronic pain was estimated using questions about the frequency of being troubled with pain. We used random-intercept cross-lagged panel models to assess the bidirectional association between pain and depressive symptoms, adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: There was a cross-lagged effect of chronic pain on depressive symptoms (ELSA: ß: 0.038; 95%CI: 0.011-0.066. Standardized coefficient (B): 0.021. SHARE: ß: 0.044; 95%CI: 0.023-0.065. B: 0.023-0.024) as well as depressive symptoms on pain (ELSA: ß: 0.010; 95%CI: 0.002-0.018. B: 0.017-0.019. SHARE: 0.011; 95%CI: 0.005-0.017. B: 0.020-0.021). Moreover, there were auto-regressive effects of both chronic pain (ELSA: ß: 0.149; 95%CI: 0.128-0.171. SHARE: ß: 0.129; 95%CI: 0.112-0.145) and depressive symptoms (ELSA: ß: 0.149; 95%CI: 0.130-0.168. SHARE: ß: 0.169; 95%CI: 0.154-0.184). CONCLUSION: We identified a modest bidirectional association between depressive symptoms and chronic pain, using two large prospective ageing cohorts.

Purpose in Life Links Positive Aging Views to Life Satisfaction: A Within-Person Analysis Spanning 13 Years.

This study aimed to examine the relationship between positive perceptions of aging, purpose in life, and life satisfaction in older adults. It was hypothesized that purpose in life mediates the relationship between positive perceptions of one's aging and life satisfaction. This hypothesis was tested in a sample of older American adults from four waves of the Health and Retirement Study collected at 4-year intervals between 2008 and 2020 (N = 11,546, mean age in 2008 = 62.772). The random intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to separate within-person and between-person sources of variance. Mediation was tested at the longitudinal within-person level and was supported. Results suggest that an increase in positive perceptions of aging is associated with a future increase in purpose in life, which in turn is associated with higher future levels of life satisfaction. The findings inform interventions promoting positive aging, purpose, and life satisfaction in older adults.

Longitudinal relationship between psychological distress and personality traits.

Personality traits are typically assumed to predict psychological distress, with little attention paid to the potential influence of psychological distress on personality traits. Recent empirical findings, however, challenge this prevailing view by demonstrating the potential for personality traits to change and suggesting the plausible influence of chronic distress on these traits. This study aimed to examine the mutual within-person associations between psychological distress and the Big Five personality traits. The primary research question was whether a change in psychological distress is associated with a change in personality traits (and vice versa) after approximately 4 years. A nationally representative sample from Australia (N = 22,837), collected at four time points over 13 years, was used. The random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to partition variance into between-person and within-person components. Results showed that there was no temporal within-person association between openness and distress. Extraversion and conscientiousness were found to have bidirectional within-person relationships with distress, suggesting that increases in extraversion and conscientiousness are associated with decreases in distress over time and vice versa. Emotional stability and agreeableness showed unidirectional relationships with distress, with increased distress predicting decreased emotional stability and increased agreeableness predicting decreased distress. Therefore, except for openness, the other traits had at least one significant within-person link to psychological distress. These findings unveil a reciprocal longitudinal linkage between personality traits and psychological distress, highlighting the potential negative impact of prolonged psychological distress on the developmental trajectory of personality traits.

Increases in sense of purpose predict future positive changes in personality traits.

This longitudinal study examined the reciprocal relationship between the Big Five personality traits and sense of purpose over a 13-year period using a nationally representative sample of American adults (N = 11,010). The random intercept cross-lagged panel model revealed unidirectional effects: increases in sense of purpose predicted subsequent increases in openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion, as well as decreases in neuroticism. Conversely, changes in personality traits did not predict future changes in sense of purpose. One potential mechanism underlying this effect might involve the link between sense of purpose and optimal self-regulatory processes and outcomes, such as successful planning, goal-directed behaviour, and self-control, which promote gradual positive changes in personality traits. Another plausible mechanism may be the association between purpose and improved subjective well-being and reduced psychological distress, which have been found to predict positive changes in personality traits. These findings challenge previous research that has interpreted cross-sectional associations as evidence that personality traits are predictive of purpose, rather than the other way around. The findings that intentionally cultivating a strong sense of purpose may facilitate positive personality change in adulthood.

Depression and Personality Traits Across Adolescence-Within-Person Analyses of a Birth Cohort.

Depressive symptoms and personality traits covary in adolescents, but our understanding of the nature of this relation is limited. Whereas a predisposition explanation posits that specific personality traits increase the vulnerability for developing depression, a scar explanation proposes that depression may alter premorbid personality. Attempts to test these explanatory models have relied on analyses that conflate within-person changes and between-person differences, which limits the implications that can be drawn. Moreover, research on the early adolescent years is lacking. The present study therefore examined within-person associations between depressive symptoms and Big Five personality traits across ages 10 to 16. Children (n = 817; 49.9% boys) and parents from two birth cohorts in Trondheim, Norway, were assessed biennially with clinical interviews capturing symptoms of major depressive disorder and dysthymia, and self-reported Big Five personality traits. Analyses were conducted using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, which accounts for all unmeasured time-invariant confounding effects. Increased Neuroticism predicted an increased number of depressive symptoms-and increased depressive symptoms predicted increased Neuroticism-across ages 10 to 14. Moreover, increased depressive symptoms forecast reduced Extraversion across ages 10 to 16, and reduced Conscientiousness from ages 12 to 14. Increases in Neuroticism may contribute to the development of depressive symptoms-in line with the predisposition model. As regards the scar model, depression may have an even wider impact on personality traits: increasing Neuroticism and reducing Extraversion and Conscientiousness. These effects may already be present in the earliest adolescent years.

Day-to-day associations between mindfulness and perceived stress: insights from random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling.

Objective: Mindfulness is frequently seen as a protective factor of stress, but self-report measures of mindfulness may overlap with other related constructs, such as mental health, and could thus not only be a predictor, but also an outcome of stress. This study thus aimed to examine the longitudinal bidirectional associations between the use and perceived helpfulness of the four mindfulness facets Observe, Describe, Nonjudge, and Nonreact with daily perceived stress. Methods: Participants from a large (N = 1,276) mixed student and community group sample filled out a brief daily diary over the time span of 7 days. Bidirectional cross-lagged effects were investigated using the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model, an extension of the traditional cross-lagged panel model that allows to differentiate between stable between-unit differences and time-varying within-unit dynamics. In addition, we controlled for several baseline and sociodemographic confounders. Results: At the within-subject level, the use of Actaware was associated with higher perceived stress on the next day (ß = 0.03, p = 0.029). The use (ß = -0.04, p = 0.025) and perceived helpfulness (ß = -0.05, p = 0.014) of Nonreact were associated with lower perceived stress on the next day. In turn, perceived stress was associated with lower perceived helpfulness of Describe (ß = -0.04, p = 0.037) and Nonreact (ß = -0.03, p = 0.038) on the next day. In addition, there were several residual correlations between mindfulness facets and perceived stress within days. At the between-subject level, there was a positive association between the random intercept of Describe and daily stress (r = 0.15, p = 0.003). In addition, while baseline perceived stress was negatively associated with the random intercepts of the mindfulness facets, two baseline components of mindfulness were not associated with the random intercept of perceived stress. Conclusion: On the currently investigated time scale, our results challenge prior results and assumptions regarding mindfulness as a buffering and protective factor against daily stress. With the exception of Nonreact, mindfulness was either positively associated with perceived stress, or in turn perceived stress appeared to interfere with the ability to stay mindful in daily life.