Single mixed refrigerant biomethane liquefaction plant integrated with solar energy: Dynamic simulation for the decarbonization of the heavy road transport sector.

This works proposes a dynamic thermoeconomic analysis of a liquefied biomethane production plant to meet the fuel demand of a fleet of heavy duty trucks in the south of Italy. The biomethane is obtained from the upgrading of the biogas produced by means of anaerobic digestion through a plug flow reactor fed by organic fraction of municipal solid waste. The upgrading of the biogas is realized using a three-stage membrane compression process, producing a 96 % pure biomethane. The biomethane liquefaction is realized using a single-mixed refrigerant process and compared to a Linde cycle process. The whole system is assisted by solar energy to reduce the fossil energy consumption of the process and feed-in tariffs are considered as funding policy. The models for the anaerobic digestion, the biogas upgrading, and the biomethane liquefaction are in detail developed in MatLab. The anaerobic digestion model is based on the ADM1 biological model, integrated with a suitable heat transfer model. The biogas upgrading model is based on a simplified Fick model. The liquefaction model is based on an equivalent two heat-exchangers model, taking into account the transient heat transfer. All the components are then integrated in TRNSYS to perform the dynamic simulation for one operating year of the whole system. Results from the thermoeconomic analysis are outstanding in terms of profitability, showing a payback period of less than 2 years and a Net Present Value of the system of 402 M€. The great environmental impact is also confirmed by a Primary Energy Saving of 91 % and a dramatic reduction of 86 % of the CO2 equivalent emissions.

Managing the risks associated with technological disruption in the road transport system: a control structure modelling approach.

Road transport is experiencing disruptive change from new first-of-a-kind technologies. While such technologies offer safety and operational benefits, they also pose new risks. It is critical to proactively identify risks during the design, development and testing of new technologies. The Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) method analyses the dynamic structure in place to manage safety risks. This study applied STAMP to develop a control structure model for emerging technologies in the Australian road transport system and identified control gaps. The control structure shows the actors responsible for managing risks associated with first-of-a-kind technologies and the existing control and feedback mechanisms. Gaps identified related to controls (e.g. legislation) and feedback mechanisms (e.g. monitoring for behavioural adaptation). The study provides an example of how STAMP can be used to identify control structure gaps requiring attention to support the safe introduction of new technologies.

This paper considers emerging risks associated with new technologies in the road transport system. It demonstrates a novel approach using STAMP to identify gaps in control and feedback mechanisms within the existing control structure which should be addressed to mitigate risk.

Traffic Noise Assessment Using Intelligent Acoustic Sensors (Traffic Ear) and Vehicle Telematics Data.

Here, we introduce Traffic Ear, an acoustic sensor pack that determines the engine noise of each passing vehicle without interrupting traffic flow. The device consists of an array of microphones combined with a computer vision camera. The class and speed of passing vehicles were estimated using sound wave analysis, image processing, and machine learning algorithms. We compared the traffic composition estimated with the Traffic Ear sensor with that recorded using an automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) camera and found a high level of agreement between the two approaches for determining the vehicle type and fuel, with uncertainties of 1-4%. We also developed a new bottom-up assessment approach that used the noise analysis provided by the Traffic Ear sensor along with the extensively detailed urban mobility maps that were produced using the geospatial and temporal mapping of urban mobility (GeoSTMUM) approach. It was applied to vehicles travelling on roads in the West Midlands region of the UK. The results showed that the reduction in traffic engine noise over the whole of the study road was over 8% during rush hours, while the weekday-weekend effect had a deterioration effect of almost half. Traffic noise factors (dB/m) on a per-vehicle basis were almost always higher on motorways compared the other roads studied.

Forecasting emergent risks in advanced AI systems: an analysis of a future road transport management system.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being increasingly implemented within road transport systems worldwide. Next generation of AI, Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) is imminent, and is anticipated to be more powerful than current AI. AGI systems will have a broad range of abilities and be able to perform multiple cognitive tasks akin to humans that will likely produce many expected benefits, but also potential risks. This study applied the EAST Broken Links approach to forecast the functioning of an AGI system tasked with managing a road transport system and identify potential risks. In total, 363 risks were identified that could have adverse impacts on the stated goals of safety, efficiency, environmental sustainability, and economic performance of the road system. Further, risks beyond the stated goals were identified; removal from human control, mismanaging public relations, and self-preservation. A diverse set of systemic controls will be required when designing, implementing, and operating future advanced technologies.Practitioner summary: This study demonstrated the utility of HFE methods for formally considering risks associated with the design, implementation, and operation of future technologies. This study has implications for AGI research, design, and development to ensure safe and ethical AGI implementation.

A stakeholder analysis of the road transport system in Tanzania using a STAMP control structure.

The way the road transport system is developed in a country affects safety. This study aims to identify the roles and relationships of road transport stakeholders and to explore the understanding of control and feedback mechanisms and associated gaps influencing road safety. A System-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) model was applied to document and interview data (n = 30). Participants emphasised the hindrance of overlapping mandates among stakeholders on the road transport system's operations and underlined the roles of coalitions for road safety as system enablers. Further, the withdrawal of some controls by international agencies can increase system vulnerability. Most importantly, critical control and feedback gaps were shown to increase risks for safety within the road transport system. The findings underscore the complexity of the road transport system and add to the discussion on a system's approach to road safety.Practitioner summary: Using a STAMP methodology, we extensively studied the road transport system in Tanzania. Road transport stakeholders were identified through the review of documents, interviews were conducted, and the main findings were discussed. Control and feedback mechanisms and associated gaps were critically presented, recommendations were proposed, and policy implications were suggested.

An overview of flood-induced transport disruptions on urban streets and roads in Chinese megacities: Lessons and future agendas.

Urban road transport disruptions caused by urban floods have become severe in the Chinese megacities due to climate change and urbanisation. Urban road planning, design, and land drainage systems are insufficiently coping with intense rainstorms, especially in the wet season. This is reflected in more research findings on urban flood impacts and road transport disruption over the past decade. Here we provide a critical overview of current research on urban road inundation, road traffic delays, and accessibility losses under flood conditions, and illustrate up-to-date practices with the relevant governmental institutions. Our review implies that urban flood management in road design is still at an embryonic stage in the Chinese megacities. Hence, we review the lessons and experiences of urban flood impacts on roads in the global context. We argue that it is essential to enhance better co-production practices on emergency responses and recovery measures between authorities, which is vital to improving flood resilience in uncertain climates.

Economy-wide impacts of road transport electrification in the EU.

While electrification of road transport is a key component of decarbonisation, the implications for the broader economy and related jobs remain underexplored. We quantify these impacts in the EU in a global Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, combining techno-economic assumptions about electric vehicles with deployment scenarios derived by energy models. We augment input-output tables underlying the JRC-GEM-E3 model with an explicit representation of vehicle manufacturing and upgrade the modelling of vehicle purchase and operation. Our findings illustrate that greater road transport electrification reduces the overall costs of climate mitigation, primarily driven by lower fuel costs for electric vehicles and a faster decline of battery costs. Transport electrification alters supply-chains and leads to structural shifts in employment from traditional vehicle manufacturing towards battery production, electricity supply and related investments. Finally, we expand the set of labour market indicators to cover skills and occupations, to refine the socio-economic assessments of climate policy.

Factors that influence the expansion of electric delivery vehicles and trucks in EU countries.

As one of the possibilities of reducing exhaust emissions, the article takes into account infrastructure and electric vehicles used in road transport. Taking into account the goal to achieve a 30% share of vehicle electric, the number of charging stations available in the entire European Union is not sufficient. There has been a slight increase in sales of electric vans and trucks in the EU in recent years. This may be due to the lack of available infrastructure which would render it possible to power them, and also from the lack of available delivery vehicles in the market. What is interesting, the number of electric vehicles in a country is not necessarily in proportion to the number of available charging stations. It is the authors' intention as well to indicate the potential directions of the development of a low-emission cargo transport in the European Union. Upon the basis of the results, it is ascertained that there is a strong correlation between the value of a country's GDP and the number of electric vehicle charging stations. A moderate correlation is also observed in the case of a country's population, as well as in the case of the market share of registered electric delivery vehicles in a country.

Evaluation of air quality and mobility policies in 14 large Italian cities from 2006 to 2016.

Despite a connection between road traffic and air pollution has been clearly identified, few integrated analyses on air quality and mobility policies are currently available worldwide. Aim of this work is to build a framework for the evaluation of the impact of mobility policies on air quality in 14 major Italian cities, on a long-time scale (2006-2016). Air quality data was collected from all PM10, PM2.5, and NO2 monitoring stations, installed in compliance with the European directive 2008/50/EC. A large dataset was collected, including public transport, environmental, and fuel categorization of the private vehicular fleet, low emissions zones and modal split. In the analyzed time period, both public transportation use and private motorization decreased. Considering the environmental classification standards of vehicles, Northern cities are more readily switching to newer and less polluting cars (e.g. Euro 5 and Euro 6). There has been a general reduction in PM and NO2 concentration. Nevertheless, exceedances are still above the targeted limit value, mainly in some Northern cities who made major investments in sustainable and shared mobility: this highlights a strong influence of climatic conditions and other sources. Dramatic variations in the CO/NO ratio were observed in Turin, while smaller changes are observed in Milan, Rome and Palermo.

Development of a road traffic emission inventory with high spatial-temporal resolution in the world's most densely populated region-Macau.

With rapid economic growth, road transport is contributing substantial adverse effects on urban air quality, especially in densely populated cities with high growth rate of GDP per capita, such as Macau. A high spatial-temporal resolution road traffic emission inventory is essential for assessment of environmental stresses imposed by local vehicle movements. To improve the accuracy and temporal-spatial resolution for emission inventory, through a bottom-up approach, link-based road traffic emission inventory with a spatial resolution of 0.1 km ∗ 0.1 km and a temporal resolution of 1 h for Macau in 2014 was developed by using a traffic model (VISUM), a road traffic emission model (TREM), the Geographic Information System (GIS), and the most up-to-date information available. Results show that the total annual emissions of CO, CO2, PM, NOX, and VOC in 2014 were 14,770, 413,099, 69, 1151, and 2945 tons, respectively. The estimated fuel consumption agreed well also with the statistical fuel consumption in Macau. Meanwhile, analysis of 3 scenarios on changes of road traffic emissions due to the operation of a light railway transit (LRT) system, variation on share of diesel, electric, and gasoline within the vehicle fleet, and replacement of vehicles with ones of Euro 5 and Euro 6 emission standards was carried out. This study provides a solid framework for developing high spatial-temporal resolution emission inventories for other densely populated cities of small area.

Occupational exposure to carcinogens in Australian road transport workers.

BACKGROUND: Road transport workers (RTWs) are at high risk of exposure to several occupational carcinogens. However, there are gaps in knowledge regarding the extent and the circumstances of exposure. As a sub-study of the Australian Work Exposures Study, this study investigated the prevalence of occupational exposure in Australian RTWs. METHODS: A random sample of Australian working population was invited to a telephone interview regarding their current jobs. An automated expert-assessment procedure was applied to self-reported job-related tasks using a web-based application. 162 RTWs were included in this study. RESULTS: RTWs were exposed to diesel exhaust (97%), solar ultraviolet radiation (78%), environmental tobacco smoke (55%), benzene (29%), silica (15%), and asbestos (10%) at work. Besides driving on roads, vehicle maintenance-related tasks were the major source of carcinogen exposures among RTWs. DISCUSSION: Most RTWs are exposed to at least one carcinogen at work. We have identified tasks where the use of control measures could potentially reduce exposures.

EU effect: Exporting emission standards for vehicles through the global market economy.

Emission data from EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research), rather than economic data, are used to estimate the effect of policies and of the global exports of policy-regulated goods, such as vehicles, on global emissions. The results clearly show that the adoption of emission standards for the road transport sector in the two main global markets (Europe and North America) has led to the global proliferation of emission-regulated vehicles through exports, regardless the domestic regulation in the country of destination. It is in fact more economically convenient for vehicle manufacturers to produce and sell a standard product to the widest possible market and in the greatest possible amounts. The EU effect (European Union effect) is introduced as a global counterpart to the California effect. The former is a direct consequence of the penetration of the EURO standards in the global markets by European and Japanese manufacturers, which effectively export the standard worldwide. We analyze the effect on PM2.5 emissions by comparing a scenario of non-EURO standards against the current estimates provided by EDGAR. We find that PM2.5 emissions were reduced by more than 60% since the 1990s worldwide. Similar investigations on other pollutants confirm the hypothesis that the combined effect of technological regulations and their diffusion through global markets can also produce a positive effect on the global environment. While we acknowledge the positive feedback, we also demonstrate that current efforts and standards will be totally insufficient should the passenger car fleets in emerging markets reach Western per capita figures. If emerging countries reach the per capita vehicle number of the USA and Europe under current technological conditions, then the world will suffer pre-1990 emission levels.

Environmental factors affecting soil metals near outlet roads in Poznan, Poland: impact of grain size, soil depth, and wind dispersal.

We determined the Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations in soil samples collected along the eight main outlet roads of Poznan. Samples were collected at distances of 1, 5, and 10 m from the roadway edges at depth intervals of 0-20 and 40-60 cm. The metal content was determined in seven grain size fractions. The highest metal concentrations were observed in the smallest fraction (<0.063 mm), which were up to four times higher than those in sand fractions. Soil Pb, Cu, and Zn (and to a lesser extent Ni, Cr, and Cd) all increased in relation to the geochemical background. At most sampling sites, metal concentrations decreased with increasing distance from roadway edges and increasing depth. In some locations, the accumulation of metals in soils appears to be strongly influenced by wind direction. Our survey findings should contribute in predicting the behavior of metals along outlet road, which is important by assessing sources for further migration of heavy metals into the groundwater, plants, and humans.

Monitoring the physiological inflammatory alertness in horse after road transport.

The aim of this study was to assess the changes of pro-inflammatory interleukins in 10 horses subjected to road transport practices (distance of 150 km) from the training site (Messina, Sicily) to the competition centre in Syracuse (Sicily). Blood sampling and interleukins analysis were performed during a round trip transportation (transport 1 and transport 2). In particular, blood samples were collected before the transport took place (Pre), five minutes later (Post) and one hour later (Post 1 h), for each transport, in order to assess the serum concentration of IL-1α, IL-1ß, IL-2 and IL-6. The results showed that the serum concentration of IL-1α decreased at Post and Post 1 h compared to the values obtained at rest condition (P < 0.05). The other interleukins analysed (i.e. IL-1ß, IL-2 and IL-6) showed increased levels at Post than Rest and Post 1 h in transport 1 (P < 0.05). In transport 2 the analysed parameters showed no change throughout the analysed time points (P > 0.05); however, higher levels of IL-1α at Pre and higher IL-1ß, IL-2 and IL-6 values at Post were found in transport 1 than transport 2 (P < 0.05). The increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines after transport 1 suggests the triggering of the inflammatory event and this may show that, although horses are animals accustomed to transport, this is a stressful event that could activate the well-orchestrated inflammation cascade, albeit physiological and temporary, as highlighted by the lower serum concentrations of the investigated interleukins found in transport 1 than transport 2 and by the lack of significant differences in the serum concentrations of the investigated interleukins among the time points of transport 2. It must be taken into account that enrolled animals are well-trained and healthy athletic horses participating to a jumper competition, thus, such inflammation did not occur thanks to a good balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines which allowed a prompt restoration of homeostasis eventually impaired by the stressful event.

Assessing the impact of different urban morphology scenarios on air pollutant emissions distribution.

As urban areas grow with the increase in population, so do the problems associated with these areas, such as an increase in atmospheric emissions. Since urban morphology has an effect on the environment, it is necessary to design future urban morphologies to accommodate the expected growth and mitigate the associated problems. By employing an emission distribution methodology based on the relationship between land use and emission activity sectors, including transport and road traffic emissions modelling (with PTV-VISUM and TREM, respectively), this study aims to identify urban morphologies that have the potential to minimize atmospheric emissions for future multi-core regions. This study assesses three urban morphology scenarios, focused on Aveiro, Portugal, where two represent urban compaction - Focused City scenario and Independent City scenario -, and one represents an extreme version of the current urban dispersion. The impact of urban scenarios was compared against the current urban morphology. Results indicate that, for the compact urban morphologies, the Focused City scenario showed a small increase in emissions, and the Independent City scenario led to a decrease in emissions, especially for NOx (-16 %), as it is the pollutant most affected by road traffic emissions. As for the Disperse City scenario, it showed the highest overall increase, as it greatly increased the vehicle volume and total distance travelled. These results highlight the need for policy and behavioral changes to accompany the changes to urban morphology, and for special attention to be paid to the location of activity sectors when designing the different urban morphologies. This study contributes novel insights by applying a comprehensive methodology that integrates land use, activity sectors, and road traffic emissions modelling. By assessing the urban morphology's impact on air pollutant emissions, it is possible to inform urban planners of future urban planning strategies.

Eye Temperature Measured with Infrared Thermography to Assess Stress Responses to Road Transport in Horses.

The aim of the present study was to investigate eye temperature modifications after road transport in athletic horses habituated to travel. Eight adult Italian saddle horses traveled 100 km and, two weeks later, 300 km. Eye temperature (ET), rectal temperature (RT) and serum cortisol concentration were assessed before (T1), after (T2) and 60 min (T3) after the road transport. ET was evaluated with infrared thermography (IRT) in three regions of interest: EL1 (medial canthus), EL2 (central cornea) and EL3 (lateral canthus). Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures showed statistically higher values at T2 and T3 for EL1 (p < 0.01), EL2 (p < 0.01) and EL3 (p < 0.01) following the 100 km journey. RT (p < 0.01) showed higher values at T2 and T3 after the 100 km journey and higher values at T2 (p < 0.01) following the 300 km journey. ET values were positively correlated with RT at T1, T2 and T3 following the 100 km journey and at T2 following the 300 km journey and positively correlated with serum cortisol concentration at T1, T2 and T3 following the 100 km journey and at T2 and T3 following the 300 km journey. Eye temperature monitoring with IRT allows quick and practical strategies to monitor an animal's physiological state and welfare during daily activities.

Decarbonizing the Transport of Microalgae-based Products - The Role of E-mobility.

BACKGROUND: The decarbonization of road transport is a precondition for achieving carbon neutrality. Battery-electric vehicle technology can make this a reality. In this bias, the objective of the article is to shed light on the ongoing debate about the potentially important role of the adoption of electric vehicles in the transport of microalgae- based products to help them advance to a cleaner life cycle. METHODS: Five routes, including unimodal and multimodal conditions, were defined to assess the carbon emissions of the transport system and, more specifically, of road transport. The headquarters of market-leading microalgae manufacturers were selected as the origin of the routes and, as the destination, regions that sustain them. RESULTS: The results reveal the supremacy of road transport of microalgae-based products using electric vehicles powered by nuclear, hydroelectric, and wind, followed by biomass and photovoltaic energy. They also show that the positive impact of wind, water, and photovoltaic energy on the climate, added to the lower battery charging costs and the greater opportunity to generate revenue from the sale of carbon credits, make their tradeoffs. CONCLUSION: The exquisite results of this study convey key messages to decision-makers and stakeholders about the role of electromobility in building a zero-carbon delivery route.

Transport fare and road traffic crashes in Nigeria: insights from a geographical analysis.

Road traffic crashes (RTCs) are significantly high in Nigeria with serious social and health consequences. While existing studies on RTCs have mainly focused on the effect of socio-economic, environmental, human and mechanical factors to address the high rates, the relationship between road transport fares and RTCs has been glossed over in literature. Thus, this study examines the influence of road transport fares and other covariates on RTCs. Data on RTCs and the predictors between 2017 and 2022 were obtained from the records of the National Bureau of Statistics and the Federal Road Safety Corps. Spatial statistical techniques were used for the data analysis. RTCs vary across the country, and Northern Nigeria is the hot spot. Results from the spatial analysis show that road transport fares, population density, and illiteracy rate are significant predictors of RTCs. The study recommends striking a balance between fare affordability, the quality of service provided, and the implementation of effective transportation strategies.

Using infrared thermography for the evaluation of road transport thermal homeostasis in athletic horse.

This study aimed to evaluate changes in body temperature in athletic horses during two different road transport distances. Six Italian Saddle horses were subjected to a 100 and 300 km transport during different times of day (am and pm). Rectal and cutaneous temperatures were recorded before (T0), immediately (following 5 min- T1) and 1 hour (T2) after transport by means of a rectal digital thermometer and a thermal infrared camera (FLIR T440) respectively, for the evaluation of left and right side of four body regions: jugular, shoulder, croup and inner thigh. There were no differences between left and right sides, inner thigh or rectal temperatures when comparing the transport distance, time points or time of day. At T0, jugular (P < 0.0001), shoulder (P < 0.01) and croup (P < 0.01) average temperatures were higher in the pm compared to those in the am in both journeys. At T1, jugular (P < 0.01) and croup (P < 0.01) temperatures were lower in the pm compared to am following the 300 km journey. Jugular temperature (P < 0.0001) was higher following the 300 km compared to the 100 km journey at each time point (T1 and T2) at both times of day (am and pm). Shoulder (P < 0.0001) and croup temperatures (P < 0.0001) were higher at T2 after the 300 km journey than at T2 after the 100 km journey). The current results suggested a difference between the two distances and the time of day appeared to have as great effect on ocular temperature as road transport distance.

Exploring the linkages between urban form, mobility and emissions with OLYMPUS: A comparative analysis in two French regions.

Nowadays, urban planners and decision-makers are confronted with an increasing number of major urban spaces whose functioning is accompanied by a high density of domestic, private and professional activities, all associated with the consumption of fossil fuels and the emission of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases. As centers of activity and zones of economic and demographic resources, urban centers stand out as privileged areas for the implementation of local strategies aiming at reducing air pollutant emissions, whether through spatial planning, the evolution of services or the transformation of practices. In this work, we propose a diagnosis of the links between population, urban forms, mobility and air pollutant emissions, using the OLYMPUS activity-based emission model. The model is run over two distinct French regions, Pays de la Loire and Île-de-France, characterized by contrasting urban characteristics in terms of structure, density and accessibility. The results highlight the good transposability of the OLYMPUS model over different territories. Then, the interconnections between the specificities of urban systems on one side and the travel demand, modal share, mobility patterns and total road emissions on the other side, are explored. We notably show that the densification of urban centers exerts a pull on peri-urban areas, generating car trips from the suburbs and worsening air quality in the urban cores. The results underline the importance of targeted emission reduction strategies taking into account the unique characteristics and challenges of specific urban landscapes.