Revolutionizing single-use food packaging: a comprehensive review of heat-sealable, water-soluble, and edible pouches, sachets, bags, or packets.

Edible food packaging has emerged as a critical focal point in the discourse on sustainability, prompting the development of innovative solutions, notably in the realm of edible pouches. Often denoted as sachets, bags, or packets, these distinct designs have garnered attention owing to their water-soluble and heat-sealable attributes, tailored explicitly for single-use applications encompassing oils, instant or dry foods, and analogous products. While extant literature extensively addresses diverse facets of edible films, this review addresses a conspicuous void by presenting a consolidated and specialized overview dedicated to the intricate domain of edible pouches. Through a meticulous synthesis of current research, we aim to illuminate the trajectory of advancements made thus far, delving into critical aspects, including materials, production techniques, functional attributes, consumer perceptions, and regulatory considerations. By furnishing a comprehensive perspective on the potential, challenges, and opportunities inherent in edible pouches, our overarching aim is to stimulate collaborative endeavors in research, innovation, and exploration. In doing so, we aspire to catalyze the broader adoption of sustainable packaging solutions tailored to the exigencies of single-use applications.

Microbial contamination of packaged drinking water in Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES: About 18% of urban households in Nigeria depend on packaged sachet water as the primary source of drinking water. This review assessed microbial contamination of these products with an emphasis on total coliforms and the faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) - Escherichia coli (E. coli) and thermotolerant coliforms (TTC). METHODS: PubMed/Medline, African Index Medicus, AfroLib, Global Health Library, Embase and the ISI Web of Science databases were searched to identify original research published up to October 2020. The literature findings were synthesised narratively in line with the review objectives. To assess prevalence of microbial contamination, a random effects meta-analysis, was also conducted using the R metafor package in RStudio. The protocol for this review is registered on PROSPERO with reference number CRD 42019128474. RESULTS: Fifty-two of 429 studies were identified for inclusion. At 53.27%, contamination prevalence was higher for total coliforms (95% CI: 39.05-66.98, I2  = 81%, p < 0.01, 42 studies) than FIB (12.38%, 95% CI: 7.92-18.85, I2  = 61%, p < 0.01, 33 studies) suggesting that treatment failure is a major contributor to the poor microbial quality reported in the included studies. Within the FIB group, the prevalence of contamination with E. coli was 13.30% (95% CI: 8.23-20.80, I2  = 65%, p < 0.01, 27 studies) versus 6.24% (95% CI: 1.12-28.06, I2  = 72%, p < 0.01, six studies) for TTCs. Other microbial contaminants reported were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella and Enterococcus faecalis and these showed multidrug antibiotic resistance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this review highlight the need for improved regulatory oversight with more stringent monitoring of the microbial quality of sachet water products in Nigeria.

Validation of the shelf life of NAFDAC-certified sachet-packed drinking water brands vended in Nigeria.

This study was performed to validate the shelf life of commercial sachet-packed drinking water produced in the Benin City metropolis, Edo State, Nigeria. Seven brands of sachet-packed water that were freshly produced by manufacturers were collected from respective factories and subjected to standard physicochemical and microbial tests. The colour of all water brands (0·0-5·6 HU) was within the limits recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) (≤15 HU) while the temperature (26·9-28·4°C) was above the limits recommended by WHO (≤25·0°C). The pH reported in brands 1 and 6 at week 8 of storage was below WHO recommended limits (6·5-9·5). At week 8 of storage, brands 1 and 6 had HPC (3·97-4·70 log10 CFU per ml) that were above WHO/National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) recommended limits (≤2 log10 CFU per ml) while TCC (<1 MPN 100 ml-1 ) in all brands were within recommended limits (≤10 MPN 100 ml-1 ). No thermo-tolerant Coliforms and Cryptosporidium were present in all brands; though, Streptococcus faecalis was detected in brand 6. Based on WHO/NAFDAC specifications for the examined parameters, brands 1 and 6 were inferred to not comply with the recommended shelf life of 2 months (approximately 8 weeks). Hence, there is a need for strict compliance to NAFDAC-specified Good Manufacturing Practice by these processing factories to prevent probable adverse health effects.

A cost-effectiveness analysis of a hydration response technology dressing in the treatment of venous leg ulcers in the UK.

OBJECTIVE: Venous leg ulcers (VLUs) cause significant pain and suffering for patients. Additionally, they place considerable financial and service burden on the National Health Service (NHS). A large proportion of VLUs do not heal within the standard time frame of 16-24 weeks, resulting in static wounds which commonly have issues with increasing exudate production. As the NHS continues to face times of austerity, services need to find solutions to be able to reduce costs and release nursing time while maintaining standards of care. Cutimed Sorbion Sachet S, a hydration response technology dressing (HRTD), is a treatment option for the management of patients with a VLU. The objective of this study was to provide an update of the health economic analysis of HRTD in comparison with relevant comparators in the UK with current cost data. METHOD: HRTD was compared against four different dressings, Zetuvit Plus (a super absorbent polymer dressing SAP), DryMax extra (a superabsorbent dressing, SADM), KerraMax Care (superabsorbent dressing, SAKM) and Eclypse (superabsorbent dressing, SAE) from a cost-effectiveness perspective. Clinical data were derived from literature and expert opinion. Cost input was utilised based on publicly available data and literature. The average patient in the model is assumed to be 65 years with a diagnosed VLU. It is assumed that patients in the different treatment arms have the same background mortality, hence the endpoint mortality is not included in the model. The analysis is based on a deterministic Markov model derived from Harding et al. with weekly cycles. The following assumptions are made: first, all patients start in a static health state with a non-healed but non-progressing VLU. It is assumed in the model that patients wounds can transition to a deteriorating state or one where a wound is improving or could progress. Additionally, VLUs could be healed from a progressed wound (i.e. improved wound), or they could develop into a severe wound with complications (infections) to be treated in hospitals. The time frame for the analysis was fixed for one year and no re-occurence after healing was assumed to happen. RESULTS: The cost-effectiveness analysis demonstrates health economic dominance of HRDT being more effective and cost-saving against all analysed comparators. When using literature-based input values, the incrementally higher healing rates for HRDT are 11.04 months (versus SAP), 29.04 months (versus SADM), 1.68 months (versus SAKM) and 11.04 months (versus SAE). Cost savings per patient were £37.60 versus SAP, £171.68 versus SADM, £3.13 versus SAKM and £43.63 versus SAE. CONCLUSION: Clinical benefits and cost savings increase when real-life practice assumptions, based on expert opinion, are included. Based on the underlying health economic model, HRDT is more effective and less costly than other comparative products in VLUs in the UK.

Health risk assessment of heavy metal variability in sachet water sold in Ado-Odo Ota, South-Western Nigeria.

The sales of sachet water (SW), also known as "pure water" (PW), in Nigeria is a lucrative business. It serves many people, especially low-income earners, by providing a more affordable access to safe drinking water when compared with table water. However, some of the producers of SW do not effectively treat raw water before packaging them for sale. This study investigates the presence and concentrations of heavy metals, such as chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), and zinc (Zn) in some samples of SW sold within Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Samples of SW from nine different producers were purchased for four consecutive weeks and analyzed to determine the concentrations of these heavy metals in them. Furthermore, health risk indicators, such as chronic daily intake (CDI) and health risk indices (HRI) for children and adults, were calculated separately. The metal concentrations were compared with allowable limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO), Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). High concentrations of Cr, Fe, and Al were found in all the nine samples and exceeded the maximum allowable limits (MAL) of all the standards considered. However, the concentrations of Zn, Mn, and Cu were within permissible limits. The HRIs of heavy metals were in the order of Cu > Fe > Zn > Mn > Al > Cr, but since the standard limits set for some metals were exceeded, proper and effective treatment is required to safeguard the health of consumers.

Health risk and germ cell toxicity of five commercially available sachet waters in Nigeria: a public health concern.

Background: Sachet water is the most common form of portable water commercially available in Nigeria. Methodology: Using the murine sperm count and sperm abnormality assay, the germ cell toxicity of five common commercially available sachet waters in Nigeria was assessed in this study. The levels of hormones such as Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Total Testosterone (TT); and activities of catalase (CAT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were evaluated. The heavy metal and physicochemical parameters of the sachet waters were also analyzed. Healthy male mice were allowed to freely drink the sachet waters for 35 days after which they were sacrificed. Results: The findings indicated that the concentrations of some heavy metals (As, Cr, and Cd) in the sachet waters exceeded the limit by regulatory organizations. The data of the total carcinogenic risk (TCR) and total non-carcinogenic risk (THQ) of some heavy metals associated with the ingestion of sachet water for adults and children showed that the values exceeded the acceptable threshold, and thus, is indicative of a high non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks. The data of the sperm abnormality assay showed that in the exposed mice, the five sachet waters induced a statistically significant (P < 0.05) increase in abnormal sperm cells and a significantly lower mean sperm count. Additionally noted were changes in the serum activities of TT, FSH, ALP, AST, ALT, and LH. Conclusion: Thus, the sachet waters studied contained agents that can induce reproductive toxicity in exposed humans. This is of public health importance and calls for immediate action by regulatory bodies.

Navigating between socio-economic viability and environmental impacts: The sachets and sticks paradox.

Sachets and plastic sticks, single-use packaging primarily constructed from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), have proliferated globally for their convenience and multilayered construction that ensures product integrity. Especially prominent in emerging markets and amplified by pandemic-driven demand for hygiene products, these formats contribute significantly to fossil fuel industry revenue, aligning closely with petrochemical infrastructure developments such as fracking. While providing producers risk mitigation and cost-effective branding opportunities, these packaging types impose significant environmental tolls. The multimaterial layered composition of these materials hampers recycling efforts, and incineration releases toxins, exacerbating pollution. The plastics industry thus becomes an economic support for fossil fuel sectors facing declining oil demand. The growth of this sachet-stick economy represents a precarious balance between immediate economic benefits and long-term environmental ramifications. As global attention increasingly turns toward sustainability and pollution reduction, it becomes crucial to analyze the true environmental and socioeconomic costs of sachet and stick packaging.

FLUORIDE CONTENT OF COMMERCIALLY PACKAGED SACHET WATER IN IBARAPA LAND, SOUTHWEST, NIGERIA.

Background: Fluoride concentration (F conc) in water is a major determinant for the occurrence of dental caries and dental fluorosis. In most homes of rural communities, especially in developing countries, there is a major reliance on sachet water as an alternate low-cost drinking water. This study aims to determine the fluoride concentrations of common commercially packaged sachet water in Ibarapa land, Southwestern, Nigeria. Methods: An observational study was conducted using convenience sampling of all commercially packaged sachet water for drinking in Ibarapa land, Southwestern, Nigeria. Thirteen samples of sachet water were obtained from Ayete (2), Igboora (6) and Lanlate (5). F conc of the sachet water was determined in triplicate using the Fluoride Ion-Selective Electrode by direct analysis. Temperature and pH of water were also measured. Results were analysed using SPSS version 23. Results: The F conc, temperature and pH range were 0.03 mgF/l - 2 mgF/l, 26.4°C - 27.2°C and 6.90 - 8.19 respectively. The minimum F conc in all samples was 0.03ppm at pH 6.90 while maximum was 2ppm at pH 7.78. F conc in 2 (15.4%), 8 (61.5%) and 3 (23.1%) water samples were 0.5-0.6 mgF/l, <0.5 mgF/ l and >0.6 mgF/l respectively. No sachet water had fluoride levels printed on their labels. Conclusion: F conc of the sachet water varied, with the majority of samples having low concentrations. Attention needs to be paid to both low levels and high levels of fluoride in drinking water to ensure safety and protective benefit.

Chemical profile of anti-epidemic sachet based on multiple sample preparation coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis combined with an embedded peaks resolution method and their action mechanisms.

The anti-epidemic sachet (Fang Yi Xiang Nang, FYXN) in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) can prevent COVID-19 through volatile compounds that can play the role of fragrant and dampness, heat-clearing and detoxifying, warding off filth and pathogenic factors. Nevertheless, the anti-(mutant) SARS-CoV-2 compounds and the compounds related to the mechanism in vivo, and the mechanism of FYXN are still vague. In this study, the volatile compound set of FYXN was constructed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based on multiple sample preparation methods, which include headspace (HS), headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE). In addition, selective ion analysis (SIA) was used to resolve embedded chromatographic peaks present in HS-SPME results. Preliminary analysis of active compounds and mechanism of FYXN by network pharmacology combined with disease pathway information based on GC-MS results. A total of 96 volatile compounds in FYXN were collected by GC-MS analysis. 39 potential anti-viral compounds were screened by molecular docking. 13 key pathways were obtained by KEGG pathway analysis (PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, HIF-1 signaling pathway, etc.) for FYXN to prevent COVID-19. 16 anti-viral compounds (C95, C91, etc.), 10 core targets (RELA, MAPK1, etc.), and 16 key compounds related to the mechanism in vivo (C56, C30, etc.) were obtained by network analysis. The relevant pharmacological effects of key pathways and key compounds were verified by the literature. Finally, molecular docking was used to verify the relationship between core targets and key compounds, which are related to the mechanism in vivo. A variety of sample preparation methods coupled with GC-MS analysis combined with an embedded peaks resolution method and integrated with network pharmacology can not only comprehensively characterize the volatile compounds in FYXN, but also expand the network pharmacology research ideas, and help to discover the active compounds and mechanisms in FYXN.

Pediatric Mini-Tablets: Predicting the Hidden Risk of Fill Errors.

Compressed mini-tablets in sachets or capsules are an increasingly prevalent oral solid dosage form for pediatric products. While resembling adult tablets, additional care is required to control weight and potency (blend uniformity) variation due to their small size (≤2.5 mm average diameter). Additionally, sachet fill count errors complicate dose accuracy as they are difficult to resolve with weight-checking equipment. This study quantified the probability of failing content uniformity (CU) specifications (which results in the inability to release a batch) defined in USP <905> using a Monte Carlo computational model. Failure risk was modeled as a function of sachet fill count, mini-tablet weight, potency distribution, and fill error frequency. The model allows product developers to (1) determine appropriate fill counts based on anticipated product weight and potency relative standard deviation (RSD), (2) set fill error probability tolerances for sachet filling processes, (3) identify CU improvement opportunities, and (4) quantify the probability of CU failure informing risk management activities and risk disclosure for regulatory agencies. A representative product with weight and potency RSD no greater than 5%, fill count of 1-4 mini-tablets per sachet, and fill error probability per mini-tablet filled of 0.1% may experience CU batch failure probabilities as high as 8.23%, but only 0.283% if the fill count is increased to 5-10 mini-tablets per sachet. Generally, fill counts of less than five mini-tablets per sachet should be avoided where possible.

Application of Poultry Gelatin to Enhance the Physicochemical, Mechanical, and Rheological Properties of Fish Gelatin as Alternative Mammalian Gelatin Films for Food Packaging.

This study aimed to describe the properties of cold water fish gelatin (FG) blended with poultry gelatin (PG) for a production of a sachet containing olive oil. To find a desirable film, the different ratio of FG-PG-based films were characterized in terms of mechanical properties. As the proportion of PG in PG-FG-based increased, the tensile strength and Young's modulus were increased, and the elongation at break and heat seal strength of the films were decreased. The 50-50 film had favorable characteristics to use as a sachet. The amount of acid index and peroxide of the oil stored in the sachets after 14 days showed that there is a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the films. The barrier properties of the films including the water vapor permeability and oxygen permeability of films were increased from 1.21 to 4.95 × 10-11 g m-1 Pa-1 s-1 and 48 to 97 cm3 mµ/m2 d kPa, respectively. Dark, red, yellow, and opaque films were realized with increasing PG. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra approved a wide peak of approximately 2500 cm-1. The rheological analysis indicated that, by adding PG, viscosity, elastic modulus (G') and loss modulus (G'') were increased significantly (p < 0.05) about 9.5, 9.32 and 18 times, respectively. Therefore, an easy modification of FG with PG will make it suitable for oil sachet packaging applications for the food industry.

Ecodesign approach for pharmaceutical packaging based on Life Cycle Assessment.

Packaging ecodesign can contribute to improve the environmental performance of pharmaceutical products. The main goal of this article is to present an ecodesign approach based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for pharmaceutical packaging, assessing opportunities to improve the packaging environmental performance, and providing ecodesign recommendations to the pharmaceutical sector. The proposed ecodesign approach consists of five phases. I) The most representative packaging of medicines in the market (blister, bottle, and sachet), with different sizes, materials and weights, were investigated. II) Three ecodesign strategies were selected to analyze with LCA: i) weight and/or volume reduction, ii) alternative types of packaging, and iii) transportation with less environmental impact. III-IV) A cradle-to-gate life cycle model has been implemented, including transport to pharmacies. Alternative transportation modes (truck, train, airplane, and ship) and different packaging production locations have been considered. Thirteen environmental categories have been analyzed. V) Ecodesign recommendations for improving the environmental performance of pharmaceutical packaging are presented in two stages: i) specific recommendations based on LCA, illustrated in sheets with examples of ecodesign, quantifying the environmental impact reduction of an ecodesign solution compared to the original; and ii) generic recommendations for different packaging life cycle phases. Ecodesign recommendations highlight the use of smaller-size packaging, avoiding superfluous elements and empty spaces, which reduces material and production costs, and transportation impacts; the selection of modes of transportation with less environmental impact, considering the packaging production location; and the use of electric vehicles for pharmacy distribution. This ecodesign approach based on LCA allows quantifying environmental impacts robustly to support the incorporation of environmental information from the design, material selection, and packaging production to distribution till the final consumer. This article emphasizes the importance of developing specific packaging ecodesign based on LCA to improve environmental performance and provide more informed recommendations to stakeholders.

Effect of storage on the levels of phthalates in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) film-packaged drinking water.

High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)-packaged water is a popular choice for urban potable water across Africa. However, the sources and fate of priority chemical contaminants have not been adequately reported. The present study seeks to determine the effect of storage and labelling on the levels of phthalates - dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and di(2-hexylethyl) phthalate (DEHP) - in HDPE packaged water. Printed and unprinted 500 mL packet samples, treated water and raw water samples were collected from two major companies in Accra and stored at three temperature levels for 28 days. Phthalates were extracted and pre-concentrated for analysis by GC-MS weekly. The results indicated that phthalates loading became detectable within the first 7 days of incubation, with printed samples showing higher concentrations than unprinted samples at every incubation temperature. The highest concentration was recorded for BBP (1.03 µg/L between a lower and upper confidence limits of 0.62 µg/L and 1.42 µg/L). Temperature significantly affected the concentration of DMP for printed packets (p-value = 0.05) and unprinted samples (p-value = 0.06), BBP across all samples, and DEHP in printed samples (p-value = 0.06). On the other hand, storage duration significantly affected the concentration of BBP across all samples. There was a very strong correlation between printing and the concentration of phthalates in the water samples (p-values <0.001) across the storage temperatures. Effect size analysis established significant differences between site-specific printed and unprinted samples. The present study revealed weak interactions between the selected phthalates and the HDPE matrix, and recommends alternative packaging that can restrict the presence of phthalates and other priority chemicals in plastic packaged drinking water.

Evaluation of Radiological Health Risks in Popularly Consumed Brands of Sachet Water in Nigeria.

Radiological investigation of 35 brands of most popularly used sachet drinking water in Ondo state, Nigeria has been carried out using a spectrometric method for evaluating the concomitant health risks to the members of the public. Activity concentrations of the investigated radionuclides 40K, 226R, and 228Ra were in the range from 16.35 ± 4.10 to 199.94 ± 38.40 Bq L-1 with an arithmetic mean (AM) of 66.22 ± 54.99 Bq L-1, from 1.35± 0.79 to 17.06 ± 5.13 Bq L-1 with an AM of 6.88 ± 3.66 Bq L-1, and from 1.95 ± 0.08 to 17.22 ± 3.87 Bq L-1 with an AM of 9.49 ± 4.98 Bq L-1, respectively. The determined annual effective doses and the corresponding excess lifetime cancer risks due to 226Ra and 228Ra were found to exceed the acceptable limits of 0.1 mSv y-1 and 10-3 respectively, as suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO). This implies a non-negligible carcinogenic health hazard due to the intake of the surveyed drinking water, especially for the lactating babies (0-1) y and teenagers (12-17) y. The data from this research may form an invaluable component of radiometric values of the database in Nigeria, as well as the world for setting up guidelines and control policies for the use of sachet water.

Mechanical and barrier properties of starch blend films enhanced with kaolin for application in food packaging.

Starch blend films of native cassava starch and medium distarch phosphate cassava starch (crosslinked cassava starch) were prepared by solution casting. The effects of kaolin content on the water resistance and mechanical properties of the starch blend films were investigated. The addition of 10 wt% kaolin to the starch blend film lowered water vapor permeability to 3.51 × 10-5 g m day-1 m-2 Pa-1, water solubility to 31.60% and raised tensile strength to 2.99 MPa. At this loading of kaolin, the structural integrity of the starch blend film was maintained during immersion in water and thermal stability was enhanced. Scanning electron microscopy revealed kaolin to be well dispersed and embedded within the starch matrix. In summary, the starch blend film composite with 10 wt% kaolin had interesting properties as a material to replace non-biodegradable synthetic plastics for packaging, particularly sachets for food products.

Domestic drinking water management: Quality assessment in Oforikrom municipality, Ghana.

Drinking water in Ghana is estimated at 79%, but this only represents the proportion of the population with access to improved drinking water sources without regard to the quality of water consumed. This study investigated the quality of household drinking water sources in the Oforikrom municipality where potable water requirements are on the rise due to an ever-increasing population. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in this study. One Hundred households were randomly selected and interviewed on the available options for drinking water and household water treatment and safe storage. A total of 52 points of collection (POC) and 97 points of use (POU) water samples from households were collected for physicochemical and microbial water quality analysis. Amongst the available drinking water options, sachet water (46%) was mostly consumed by households. Water quality analysis revealed that the physicochemical parameters of all sampled drinking water sources were within the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) recommended values expected for pH (ranging from 4.50 to 7.50). For the drinking water sources, bottled (100%, n = 2) and sachet water (91%, n = 41) showed relatively good microbial water quality. Generally, POC water samples showed an improved microbial water quality in comparison to POU water samples. About 38% (n = 8) of the households practicing water quality management, were still exposed to unsafe drinking water sources. Households should practice good water quality management at the domestic level to ensure access to safe drinking water. This may include the use of chlorine-based disinfectants to frequently disinfect boreholes, wells and storage facilities at homes.

Sachet water quality and Vendors' practices in Damongo, northern Ghana during the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 using multivariate statistics, water quality and pollution indices, and panel assessment.

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 has affected several production services including the water production and delivery processes. This study considered sachet water quality during the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic using multivariate statistics and Water Quality Index, Water Pollution Index and, hygienic and sanitation practices of sixty-two (62) sachet water vendors using a panel assessment approach. The findings showed that vendors did not adhere to proper hygienic practices as ninety-four (94%) of them did not have health clearance, ninety (90%) did not frequently wash their receptacles for selling daily, and most of them stored and sold in unhygienic environments. Majority of the producers violated Food and Drugs Authority Regulations. The Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis showed that total iron, Total Heterotrophic Bacteria, Salmonella, Cl-, E. coli, and fecal and total coliforms were the controlling elements in the water. All the brands were below threshold limits based on the physical water assessment. However, enteric bacteria were observed in all the brands. Water Quality and Water Pollution Indices (WQI and WPI) described all the sachet water brands (vendors and production sites) as excellent for drinking. The WQI computations for samples from the production and vending sites respectively ranged from 0.12 to 0.36 and 0.27-0.42 whereas WPI presented 0.22-0.31 and 0.23-0.32. Comparatively, samples from vendors had elevated elemental concentrations and loads. This suggests that besides sachet water contamination during production and transportation, vendors significantly impacted the quality of sachet water. Sensitization on proper hygienic practices for sachet water production and vending and routine assessment of the quality of sachet water produced or sold is recommended.

The effectiveness of using text and pictograms on oral rehydration, dry-mixture sachet labels.

BACKGROUND: Medication labels are often the only information available to patients after obtaining medication from a healthcare practitioner. Pictograms are graphic symbols that have shown to increase understanding of medicine use instructions. AIM: To compare the accuracy of the interpretation of medicine use instructions from two different oral rehydration (OR) dry-mixture sachet labels - the control 'routine textonly' label and an experimental label with 'text-and-pictograms'. SETTING: Participants were recruited from waiting rooms in public primary health care (PHC) facilities in Cape Town. METHOD: Each participant was required to answer six questions about OR preparation. Response accuracy was determined by comparing the participant's answer to the actual information written on the relevant label. Afterwards, participants could offer their opinion about the label and ways to improve their understanding. RESULTS: Of the 132 participants who were recruited, 67 were allocated to the experimental group and 65 to the control group. Only the significant difference between the experimental and control groups for the six questions regarding the label, was recorded for the answer that could be read from a single pictogram (p = 0.00) on the experimental group's label. When asked about this question, more control participants (15/65) found the dosing instruction difficult to understand when compared to the experimental group (1/67). A third of the control participants (22/65) indicated that they could not see or locate instructions on the label. CONCLUSION: Text and pictograms on written medicine labels may be an effective tool to aid understanding of medicine use instructions amongst patients attending PHC facilities.

Use of sachet alcohol and sexual behaviour among adolescents in Ibadan, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Availability and affordability of sachet liquor has significantly increased adolescents' access to alcohol in Nigeria. This study investigated use of sachet alcohol and sexual behavior among adolescents in Ibadan South-East Local Government Area(IBSE-LGA), Oyo state, Nigeria. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted with three-stage random sampling technique to select 390 adolescents in IBSE-LGA, Oyo state; using quantitative and qualitative instruments(5 IDIs). RESULTS: There were more male adolescents (61.8%); with 14.7±2.6 as mean age; equal proportion of early (10-14years) and late(15-19years) adolescents. Findings show that about 16% of the respondents have not completed Primary School education; half(50%) of the respondents had ever taken alcohol, while 39.5% are current users of sachet alcohol (more males, older adolescents and working class). Many respondents are sexually active(30.5%), out of which 63% did not use any protection in their last sex episode, and 33.6% tok sachet alcohol before sex. There was an association between sachet alcohol use and risky sexual behaviours(p<0.05). Participants of IDI believe alcohol boosts sexual performance. CONCLUSION: Sex, age and school/work status were related to alcohol use among adolescents. Higher proportion of the adolescents associated alcohol use with heightened sexual performance. Health education strategies (public enlightenment, peer education and life skills training) against adolescent alcohol use is recommended.

Increased presevation of sliced mozzarella cheese by antimibrobial sachet incorporated with allyl isothiocyanate.

There is an increasing tendency to add natural antimicrobials of plant origin into food. The objective of this work was to develop a microbial sachet incorporated with allyl isothiocyanate (AIT), a volatile compound of plant origin, and to test its efficiency against growth of yeasts and molds, Staphylococcus sp. and psychrotrophic bacteria on sliced mozzarella cheese. Another objective was to quantify the concentration of AIT in the headspace of cheese packaging. A reduction of 3.6 log cycles was observed in yeasts and molds counts in the mozzarella packed with the antimicrobial sachet over 15-day storage time. The sachet also showed an antibacterial effect on Staphylococcus sp., reducing 2.4 log cycles after 12-day storage. Psychrotrophic bacteria species were the most resistant to the antimicrobial action. The highest concentration of AIT (0.08µg.mL(-1)) inside the active packaging system was observed at the 6(-)day of storage at 12 ºC ± 2 ºC. At the end of the storage time, AIT concentration decreased to only 10% of the initial concentration. Active packaging containing antimicrobial sachet has a potential use for sliced mozzarella, with molds and yeasts being the most sensitive to the antimicrobial effects.