The Multi-Purpose Airborne Sensor Carrier MASC-3 for Wind and Turbulence Measurements in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer.

For atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) studies, unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) can provide new information in addition to traditional in-situ measurements, or by ground- or satellite-based remote sensing techniques. The ability of fixed-wing UAS to transect the ABL in short time supplement ground-based measurements and the ability to extent the data horizontally and vertically allows manifold investigations. Thus, the measurements can provide many new possibilities for investigating the ABL. This study presents the new mark of the Multi-Purpose Airborne Sensor Carrier (MASC-3) for wind and turbulence measurements and describes the subsystems designed to improve the wind measurement, to gain endurance and to allow operations under an enlarged range of environmental conditions. The airframe, the capabilities of the autopilot Pixhawk 2.1, the sensor system and the data acquisition software, as well as the post-processing software, provide the basis for flight experiments and are described in detail. Two flights in a stable boundary-layer and a close comparison to a measurement tower and a Sodar system depict the accuracy of the wind speed and direction measurements, as well as the turbulence measurements. Mean values, variances, covariance, turbulent kinetic energy and the integral length scale agree well with measurements from a meteorological measurement tower. MASC-3 performs valuable measurements of stable boundary layers with high temporal resolution and supplements the measurements of meteorological towers and sodar systems.

Energy transition in the enhancement and break of turbulence barrier during heavy haze pollution.

Variation of the turbulence barrier effect caused by the turbulence intermittency have a strong impact on the vertical distribution and variation of pollutants, which limits the accuracy of pollution process simulation. Turbulence observation data from the five layers of the 255 m meteorological tower in Tianjin during two severe haze pollution periods were used to discuss energy changes during the enhancement and break of the turbulence barrier. Results showed that a sharp decrease in turbulence kinetic energy contributed to barrier enhancement and the kinetic energy transfer from sub-mesoscale motion to turbulence triggered the barrier break. The barrier break point tends to occur after Δ KE < 0 (the kinetic energy difference between turbulence and sub-mesoscale motion), subsequently followed by a significant increase in Δ KE. Due to the significant reduction in wind speed during severe haze pollution, type-B intermittency events occurred more frequently and existed at five heights. Type-A intermittency events were more likely to occur at the heights of 40 and 80 m, and type-C intermittency events were more likely to occur at heights above 80 m. Wind speed thresholds at different heights (2.5 m s-1 for 40 m, 4 m s-1 for 80 m, 4 m s-1 for 120 m, 4 m s-1 for 160 m, 4.5 m s-1 for 200 m) can be used to determine whether turbulent barrier effects occurred. This study provides an important research basis for solving the theoretical problem of the stable boundary layer that currently limits the accurate prediction of severe haze pollution processes.

Low particulate nitrate in the residual layer in autumn over the North China Plain.

High ozone concentrations promote the formation of nitrate in the nocturnal residual layer (RL), but this phenomenon has not been confirmed by direct observation. In this study, ozone, water-soluble ions in PM2.5 and the corresponding meteorological factors in the stable boundary layer, RL and mixing layer were observed by portable instruments carried on a tethered balloon over the North China Plain. The ozone concentration significantly increased in the RL compared to that in the stable boundary layer, while particulate nitrate significantly decreased, except in the clouds. Unfavorable environmental conditions, i.e., high temperature, low relative humidity, low aerosol surface area, and weak particle acidity, are not conducive to dinitrogen pentoxide uptake and hydrolysis to form particulate nitrate in the RL, and are conducive to the volatilization of nitrate to a gaseous state. Thus, our observations differed from traditional reports and confirmed that the morning peak of particulate nitrate at ground level is not related to the downward transport of nitrate from the RL. In addition, evidence for nitrate formation in cloudy weather is provided, and the possible impact on ozone is discussed.

On the turbulence structure of deep katabatic flows on a gentle mesoscale slope.

A comprehensive analysis of the turbulence structure of relatively deep midlatitude katabatic flows (with jet maxima between 20 and 50 m) developing over a gentle (1°) mesoscale slope with a long fetch upstream of the Meteor Crater in Arizona is presented. The turbulence structure of flow below the katabatic jet maximum shows many similarities with the turbulence structure of shallower katabatic flows, with decreasing turbulence fluxes with height and almost constant turbulent Prandtl number. Still stark differences occur above the jet maximum where turbulence is suppressed by strong stability, is anisotropic and there is a large sub-mesoscale contribution to the flux. Detecting the stable boundary-layer top depends on the method used (flux- vs. anisotropy-profiles) but both methods are highly correlated. The top of the stable boundary layer, however, mostly deviates from the jet maximum height or the top of the near-surface inversion. The flat-terrain formulations for the boundary-layer height correlate well with the detected top of the stable boundary layer if the near-surface and not the background stratification is used in their formulations; however, they mostly largely overestimate this boundary-layer height. The difference from flat-terrain boundary layers is also shown through the dependence of size of the dominant eddy with height. In katabatic flows the eddy size is semi-constant with height throughout the stable boundary-layer depth, whereas in flat terrain, eddy size varies significantly with height. Flux-gradient and flux-variance relationships show that turbulence data from different stable boundary-layer scaling regimes collapse on top of each other showing that the dominant dependence is not on the scaling regime but on the local stability.

A Note on Scalar-Gradient Sharpening in the Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer.

The scalar front generated by the horizontal self advection of a dipolar vortex through a modest scalar gradient is investigated. This physical scenario is an idealization of the emergence of strong temperature ramps in the stable atmospheric boundary layer. The proposed mechanism is discussed and a two-dimensional analogy is studied in depth using direct numerical simulation. More specifically, the scalar-gradient sharpening is investigated as a function of the Reynolds number. It appears that the process of gradient sharpening at large-eddy scales may be challenging for turbulence-resolving methods applied to the stable-boundary-layer regime.

Transitions in the wintertime near-surface temperature inversion at Dome C, Antarctica.

In this work we study the dynamics of the surface-based temperature inversion over the Antarctic Plateau during the polar winter. Using 6 years of observations from the French-Italian Antarctic station Concordia at Dome C, we investigate sudden regime transitions in the strength of the near-surface temperature inversion. Here we define "near-surface" as being within the domain of the 45-m measuring tower. In particular, we consider the strongly nonlinear relation between the 10-m inversion strength (T 10m - T s) and the 10-m wind speed. To this end, all individual events for which the 10-m inversion strength increases or decreases continuously by more than 15 K in time are considered. Composite time series and vertical profiles of wind and temperature reveal specific characteristics of the transition from weak to very strong inversions and vice versa. In contrast to midlatitudes, the largest variations in temperature are not found at the surface but at a height of 10 m. A similar analysis was performed on results from an atmospheric single-column model (SCM). Overall, the SCM results reproduce the observed characteristics of the transitions in the near-surface inversion remarkably well. Using model output, the underlying mechanisms of the regime transitions are identified. The nonlinear relation between inversion strength and wind speed at a given level is explained by variations in the geostrophic wind speed, changes in the depth of the turbulent layer and the vertical divergence of turbulent fluxes. Moreover, the transitions between different boundary layer regimes cannot be explained without considering the contribution of subsidence heating.

Missed Fog?: On the Potential of Obtaining Observations at Increased Resolution During Shallow Fog Events.

Conventional in situ observations of meteorological variables are restricted to a limited number of levels near the surface, with the lowest observation often made around 1-m height. This can result in missed observations of both shallow fog, and the initial growth stage of thicker fog layers. At the same time, numerical experiments have demonstrated the need for high vertical grid resolution in the near-surface layer to accurately simulate the onset of fog; this requires correspondingly high-resolution observational data for validation. A two-week field campaign was conducted in November 2017 at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the Netherlands. The aim was to observe the growth of shallow fog layers and assess the possibility of obtaining very high-resolution observations near the surface during fog events. Temperature and relative humidity were measured at centimetre resolution in the lowest 7 m using distributed temperature sensing. Further, a novel approach was employed to estimate visibility in the lowest 2.5 m using a camera and an extended light source. These observations were supplemented by the existing conventional sensors at the site, including those along a 200-m tall tower. Comparison between the increased-resolution observations and their conventional counterparts show the errors to be small, giving confidence in the reliability of the techniques. The increased resolution of the observations subsequently allows for detailed investigations of fog growth and evolution. This includes the observation of large temperature inversions in the lowest metre (up to 5 K) and corresponding regions of (super)saturation where the fog formed. Throughout the two-week observation period, fog was observed twice at the conventional sensor height of 2.0 m. Two additional low-visibility events were observed in the lowest 0-0.5 m using the camera-based observations, but were missed by the conventional sensors. The camera observations also showed the growth of shallow radiation fog, forming in the lowest 0.5 m as early as two hours before it was observed at the conventional height of 2 m.

From Near-Neutral to Strongly Stratified: Adequately Modelling the Clear-Sky Nocturnal Boundary Layer at Cabauw.

The performance of an atmospheric single-column model (SCM) is studied systematically for stably-stratified conditions. To this end, 11 years (2005-2015) of daily SCM simulations were compared to observations from the Cabauw observatory, The Netherlands. Each individual clear-sky night was classified in terms of the ambient geostrophic wind speed with a [Formula: see text] bin-width. Nights with overcast conditions were filtered out by selecting only those nights with an average net radiation of less than [Formula: see text]. A similar procedure was applied to the observational dataset. A comparison of observed and modelled ensemble-averaged profiles of wind speed and potential temperature and time series of turbulent fluxes showed that the model represents the dynamics of the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) at Cabauw very well for a broad range of mechanical forcing conditions. No obvious difference in model performance was found between near-neutral and strongly-stratified conditions. Furthermore, observed NBL regime transitions are represented in a natural way. The reference model version performs much better than a model version that applies excessive vertical mixing as is done in several (global) operational models. Model sensitivity runs showed that for weak-wind conditions the inversion strength depends much more on details of the land-atmosphere coupling than on the turbulent mixing. The presented results indicate that in principle the physical parametrizations of large-scale atmospheric models are sufficiently equipped for modelling stably-stratified conditions for a wide range of forcing conditions.

A Mesoscale Model-Based Climatography of Nocturnal Boundary-Layer Characteristics over the Complex Terrain of North-Western Utah.

Nocturnal boundary-layer phenomena in regions of complex topography are extremely diverse and respond to a multiplicity of forcing factors, acting primarily at the mesoscale and microscale. The interaction between different physical processes, e.g., drainage promoted by near-surface cooling and ambient flow over topography in a statically stable environment, may give rise to special flow patterns, uncommon over flat terrain. Here we present a climatography of boundary-layer flows, based on a 2-year archive of simulations from a high-resolution operational mesoscale weather modelling system, 4DWX. The geographical context is Dugway Proving Ground, in north-western Utah, USA, target area of the field campaigns of the MATERHORN (Mountain Terrain Atmospheric Modeling and Observations Program) project. The comparison between model fields and available observations in 2012-2014 shows that the 4DWX model system provides a realistic representation of wind speed and direction in the area, at least in an average sense. Regions displaying strong spatial gradients in the field variables, thought to be responsible for enhanced nocturnal mixing, are typically located in transition areas from mountain sidewalls to adjacent plains. A key dynamical process in this respect is the separation of dynamically accelerated downslope flows from the surface.