Association between three-dimensional morphological features and functional indicators of neovascular age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To investigate the correlation between morphological lesions and functional indicators in eyes with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD). METHODS: This was a prospective observational study of treatment-naïve nAMD eyes. Various morphological lesions and impaired retinal structures were manually measured at baseline and month-3 in three-dimensional optical coherence tomography (OCT) and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) images, including the volumes (mm3) of macular neovascularization (MNV), avascular subretinal hyperreflective material (avascular SHRM), subretinal fluid (SRF), intraretinal fluid (IRF), serous pigment epithelial detachment (sPED) and the impaired area (mm2) of ellipsoid zone (EZ), external limiting membrane (ELM) and outer nuclear layer (ONL). RESULTS: Sixty-three eyes were included. The volume of avascular SHRM showed persistent positive associations with the area of EZ damage, both at baseline, month-3, and change values (all P < 0.001). Poor BCVA (month-3) was associated with larger volumes of baseline IRF (ß = 0.377, P < 0.001), avascular SHRM (ß = 0.306, P = 0.032), and ELM impairment area (ß = 0.301, P = 0.036) in multivariate model. EZ and ELM impairment were primarily associated with baseline avascular SHRM (ß = 0.374, p = 0.003; ß = 0.388, P < 0.001, respectively), while ONL impairment primarily associated with MNV (ß = 0.475, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The utilization of three-dimensional measurements elucidates the intrinsic connections among various lesions and functional outcomes. In particular, avascular SHRM plays an important role in prognosis of nAMD.

Mn-Co-Ce/biochar based particles electrodes for removal of COD from coking wastewater by 3D/HEFL system: Characteristics, optimization, and mechanism.

In this work, the Mn, Co, Ce co-doped corn cob biochar (MCCBC) as catalytic particle electrodes in a three-dimensional heterogeneous electro-Fenton-like (3D-HEFL) system for the efficient degradation of coking wastewater was investigated. Various characterization methods such as SEM, EDS, XRD, XPS and electrochemical analysis were employed for the prepared materials. The results showed that the MCCBC particle electrodes had excellent electrochemical degradation performances of COD in coking wastewater, and the COD removal and degradation rates of the 3D/HEFL system were 85.35% and 0.0563 min-1 respectively. RSM optimized conditions revealed higher COD removal rate at 89.23% after 31.6 min of electrolysis. The efficient degradability and wide adaptability of the 3D/HEFL system were due to its beneficial coupling mechanism, including the synergistic effect between the system factors (3D and HEFL) as well as the synergistic interactions between the ROS (dominated by •OH and supplemented by O2•-) in the system. Moreover, the COD removal rate of MCCBC could still remain at 81.41% after 5 cycles with a lower ion leaching and a specific energy consumption of 11.28 kWh kg-1 COD. The superior performance of MCCBC, as catalytic particle electrodes showed a great potential for engineering applications for the advanced treatment of coking wastewater.

An Improved Initial Alignment Method Based on SE2(3)/EKF for SINS/GNSS Integrated Navigation System with Large Misalignment Angles.

This paper proposes an improved initial alignment method for a strap-down inertial navigation system/global navigation satellite system (SINS/GNSS) integrated navigation system with large misalignment angles. Its methodology is based on the three-dimensional special Euclidean group and extended Kalman filter (SE2(3)/EKF) and aims to overcome the challenges of achieving fast alignment under large misalignment angles using traditional methods. To accurately characterize the state errors of attitude, velocity, and position, these elements are constructed as elements of a Lie group. The nonlinear error on the Lie group can then be well quantified. Additionally, a group vector mixed error model is developed, taking into account the zero bias errors of gyroscopes and accelerometers. Using this new error definition, a GNSS-assisted SINS dynamic initial alignment algorithm is derived, which is based on the invariance of velocity and position measurements. Simulation experiments demonstrate that the alignment method based on SE2(3)/EKF can achieve a higher accuracy in various scenarios with large misalignment angles, while the attitude error can be rapidly reduced to a lower level.

Molecular Engineering for Modulating Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution of Fully Conjugated 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks.

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have recently shown great potential for photocatalytic hydrogen production. Currently almost all reports are focused on two-dimensional (2D) COFs, while the 3D counterparts are rarely explored due to their non-conjugated frameworks derived from the sp3 carbon based tetrahedral building blocks. Here, we rationally designed and synthesized a series of fully conjugated 3D COFs by using the saddle-shaped cyclooctatetrathiophene derivative as the building block. Through molecular engineering strategies, we thoroughly discussed the influences of key factors including the donor-acceptor structure, hydrophilicity, specific surface areas, as well as the conjugated/non-conjugated structures on their photocatalytic hydrogen evolution properties. The as-synthesized fully conjugated 3D COFs could generate the hydrogen up to 40.36 mmol h-1 g-1. This is the first report on intrinsic metal-free 3D COFs in photocatalytic hydrogen evolution application. Our work provides insight on the structure design of 3D COFs for highly-efficient photocatalysis, and also reveals that the semiconducting fully conjugated 3D COFs could be a useful platform in clear energy-related fields.

Islets in the body are never flat: transitioning from two-dimensional (2D) monolayer culture to three-dimensional (3D) spheroid for better efficiency in the generation of functional hPSC-derived pancreatic ß cells in vitro.

Diabetes mellitus (DM), currently affecting more than 537 million people worldwide is a chronic disease characterized by impaired glucose metabolism resulting from a defect in insulin secretion, action, or both due to the loss or dysfunction of pancreatic ß cells. Since cadaveric islet transplantation using Edmonton protocol has served as an effective intervention to restore normoglycaemia in T1D patients for months, stem cell-derived ß cells have been explored for cell replacement therapy for diabetes. Thus, great effort has been concentrated by scientists on developing in vitro differentiation protocols to realize the therapeutic potential of hPSC-derived ß cells. However, most of the 2D traditional monolayer culture could mainly generate insulin-producing ß cells with immature phenotype. In the body, pancreatic islets are 3D cell arrangements with complex cell-cell and cell-ECM interactions. Therefore, it is important to consider the spatial organization of the cell in the culture environment. More recently, 3D cell culture platforms have emerged as powerful tools with huge translational potential, particularly for stem cell research. 3D protocols provide a better model to recapitulate not only the in vivo morphology, but also the cell connectivity, polarity, and gene expression mimicking more physiologically the in vivo cell niche. Therefore, the 3D culture constitutes a more relevant model that may help to fill the gap between in vitro and in vivo models. Interestingly, most of the 2D planar methodologies that successfully generated functional hPSC-derived ß cells have switched to a 3D arrangement of cells from pancreatic progenitor stage either as suspension clusters or as aggregates, suggesting the effect of 3D on ß cell functionality. In this review we highlight the role of dimensionality (2D vs 3D) on the differentiation efficiency for generation of hPSC-derived insulin-producing ß cells in vitro. Consequently, how transitioning from 2D monolayer culture to 3D spheroid would provide a better model for an efficient generation of fully functional hPSC-derived ß cells mimicking in vivo islet niche for diabetes therapy or drug screening. Video Abstract.

Advances in Structure Pharmaceutics from Discovery to Evaluation and Design.

Drug delivery systems (DDSs) play an important role in delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to targeted sites with a predesigned release pattern. The chemical and biological properties of APIs and excipients have been extensively studied for their contribution to DDS quality and effectiveness; however, the structural characteristics of DDSs have not been adequately explored. Structure pharmaceutics involves the study of the structure of DDSs, especially the three-dimensional (3D) structures, and its interaction with the physiological and pathological structure of organisms, possibly influencing their release kinetics and targeting abilities. A systematic overview of the structures of a variety of dosage forms, such as tablets, granules, pellets, microspheres, powders, and nanoparticles, is presented. Moreover, the influence of structures on the release and targeting capability of DDSs has also been discussed, especially the in vitro and in vivo release correlation and the structure-based organ- and tumor-targeting capabilities of particles with different structures. Additionally, an in-depth discussion is provided regarding the application of structural strategies in the DDSs design and evaluation. Furthermore, some of the most frequently used characterization techniques in structure pharmaceutics are briefly described along with their potential future applications.

Emerging biological insights enabled by high-resolution 3D motion data: promises, perspectives and pitfalls.

Deconstructing motion to better understand it is a key prerequisite in the field of comparative biomechanics. Since Marey and Muybridge's work, technical constraints have been the largest limitation to motion capture and analysis, which, in turn, limited what kinds of questions biologists could ask or answer. Throughout the history of our field, conceptual leaps and significant technical advances have generally worked hand in hand. Recently, high-resolution, three-dimensional (3D) motion data have become easier to acquire, providing new opportunities for comparative biomechanics. We describe how adding a third dimension of information has fuelled major paradigm shifts, not only leading to a reinterpretation of long-standing scientific questions but also allowing new questions to be asked. In this paper, we highlight recent work published in Journal of Experimental Biology and influenced by these studies, demonstrating the biological breakthroughs made with 3D data. Although amazing opportunities emerge from these technical and conceptual advances, high-resolution data often come with a price. Here, we discuss challenges of 3D data, including low-throughput methodology, costly equipment, low sample sizes, and complex analyses and presentation. Therefore, we propose guidelines for how and when to pursue 3D high-resolution data. We also suggest research areas that are poised for major new biological advances through emerging 3D data collection.

Does 3D laparoscopic video technology affect long-term survival in right hemicolectomy for cancer compared to standard 2D? A propensity score study.

BACKGROUND: There are few studies focused on the short-term results of laparoscopic right hemicolectomy performed with 2D (two-dimension) or 3D (three-dimension) video technology and none on the oncologic effects. The aim of the study was to assess the long-term results of laparoscopic right hemicolectomy (LRH) with intracorporeal anastomosis using 3D or 2D video in patients with right colon cancer with at least three years of oncologic follow-up. METHODS: Data from patients undergoing laparoscopic right hemicolectomy (LRH) with intracorporeal anastomosis for cancer in an 11-year period (June 2008-June 2019) and ≥ 3 years of follow-up were prospectively collected. Surgical procedures were performed by two expert laparoscopic surgeons. RESULTS: 111 patients were included in the study: 56 (50.5%) in the 3D group and 55 (49.5%) in the 2D group. Tumor stage and number of lymph nodes harvested were similar. Overall and disease-free survival were not different in the two groups. Local recurrence occurred in none of the patients, and distant metachronous metastases were similar in the two groups. A propensity score weighting approach was used to account for potential confounding related to patients' nonrandom allocation to the 2 groups. The effects of the intervention on postoperative outcomes were assessed with a weighted regression approach. CONCLUSIONS: Laparoscopic 3D technology allows similar oncological results as 2D vision in LRH with intracorporeal anastomosis. Larger prospective randomized studies might confirm these results in the long-term follow-up.

Laparoscopic right hemicolectomy with 2D or 3D video system technology: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Standard laparoscopic colorectal surgery relies on 2D image systems in most centers. However, 3D vision has gained popularity and is used nowadays in a constantly rising number of units. Right hemicolectomy with intracorporeal anastomosis and lymph node dissection represents a surgical procedure that may benefit the most from 3D vision. The aim of the study was to summarize the available literature on the use of 2D vs. 3D video imaging in patients undergoing laparoscopic right hemicolectomy. METHODS: A comprehensive literature review was conducted including Medline/PubMed, Embase, and Scopus (PROSPERO registration number CRD 42022344764) through October 2022. The systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The risk of bias was evaluated using the ROBINS-I tool. Certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) guidelines and GRADEpro to develop a summary of evidence tables. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Five observational retrospective studies (496 patients, 275 2D and 216 3D) were included. One study was rated as having a critical risk of bias; the remaining had low to moderate risk. 2D laparoscopic right hemicolectomy patients showed longer anastomotic time in 3/3 studies (MD = 3.32; 95%CI, 1.58-5.05; p = 0.002) and an upward trend in operative time in 4/5 studies (MD = 9.98; 95%CI, -1.42, 21.37; p = 0.086) compared to 3D. The two image video systems had similar short-term outcomes, including the number of lymph nodes harvested (MD = -0.67; 95%CI, -2.47, 1.13; p = 0.47), morbidity (OR post-operative complications = 1.12; 95%CI, 0.71-1.77; p = 0.62), and length of stay (MD = 0.27; 95%CI, -0.59, 1.13; p = 0.9). CONCLUSIONS: 2D and 2D laparoscopic right hemicolectomy had similar complications rate, with a shorter anastomotic time along with a downward trend in overall operative time for 3D. Larger prospective randomized trials are awaited before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

Three-dimensional structural analysis of papillary thyroid carcinoma nuclei with serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM).

Nuclear morphology of carcinoma cells is critical for the pathological diagnosis of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). However, three-dimensional architecture of PTC nuclei is still elusive. In this study, we analyzed the three-dimensional ultrastructure of PTC nuclei using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy which takes advantage of the high-throughput acquisition of serial electron microscopic images and three-dimensional reconstruction of subcellular structures. En bloc-stained and resin-embedded specimens were prepared from surgically removed PTCs and normal thyroid tissues. We acquired two-dimensional images from serial block-face scanning electron microscopy and reconstructed three-dimensional nuclear structures. Quantitative comparisons showed that the nuclei of carcinoma cells were larger and more complex than those of normal follicular cells. The three-dimensional reconstruction of carcinoma nuclei divided intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions into "open intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions" connecting to cytoplasm outside the nucleus and "closed intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions" without that connection. Cytoplasm with abundant organelles was observed in open inclusions, but closed inclusions contained fewer organelles with or without degeneration. Granules with a dense core were only observed in closed inclusions. Our observations suggested that open inclusions originate from nuclear invaginations, and disconnection from cytoplasm leads to closed inclusions.

Optimized SEEG-guided three-dimensional radiofrequency thermocoagulation for insular epilepsy.

PURPOSE: The high risk of resection surgery for drug-resistant insular epilepsy has driven interest in new treatment techniques. Stereo-electroencephalography-guided three-dimensional radiofrequency thermocoagulation (SEEG-3D RFTC) offers an alternative option. Herein, we present the detailed protocol and investigation of the efficacy and safety of a preliminary observational study. METHODS: From February 2017 to April 2021, ten patients diagnosed with insular epilepsy were enrolled in the study. They underwent implantation of a combination of SEEG electrodes to form a high-density focal stereo-array in insula, including oblique electrodes through the long axis of insula and orthogonal electrodes to widely cover the medial and lateral insula. SEEG-3D RFTC was performed between two contiguous contacts of the same electrode, or between two adjacent contacts of different electrodes. RESULTS: Surgical procedures were well tolerated, with no related long-term complications. Seizure-free outcome was achieved in seven patients (70%), including ILAE I in four and ILAE II in three. Two other (20%) patients had rare seizures (ILAE III). One (10%) patient experienced an ILAE IV outcome (follow-up = 12--63 months). The responder rate (including ILAE I-IV) was 100%. CONCLUSION: The optimized SEEG-3D RFTC is an effective and safe option for the treatment of drug-resistant insular epilepsy.

Terminally Chlorinated and Thiophene-linked Acceptor-Donor-Acceptor Structured 3D Acceptors with Versatile Processability for High-efficiency Organic Solar Cells.

To exploit the potential of our newly developed three-dimensional (3D) dimerized acceptors, a series of chlorinated 3D acceptors (namely CH8-3/4/5) were reported by precisely tuning the position of chlorine (Cl) atom. The introduction of Cl atom in central unit affects the molecular conformation. Whereas, by replacing fluorinated terminal groups (CH8-3) with chlorinated terminal groups (CH8-4 and CH8-5), the red-shift absorption and enhanced crystallization are achieved. Benefiting from these, all devices received promising power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) over 16 % as well as decent thermal/photo-stabilities. Among them, PM6:CH8-4 based device yielded a best PCE of 17.58 %. Besides, the 3D merits with multi alkyl chains enable their versatile processability during the device preparation. Impressive PCEs of 17.27 % and 16.23 % could be achieved for non-halogen solvent processable devices prepared in glovebox and ambient, respectively. 2.88 cm2 modules also obtained PCEs over 13 % via spin-coating and blade-coating methods, respectively. These results are among the best performance of dimerized acceptors. The decent performance of CH8-4 on small-area devices, modules and non-halogen solvent-processed devices highlights the versatile processing capability of our 3D acceptors, as well as their potential applications in the future.

Designing Thiophene-Enriched Fully Conjugated 3D Covalent Organic Framework as Metal-Free Oxygen Reduction Catalyst for Hydrogen Fuel Cells.

The application of three-dimensional (3D) covalent organic frameworks (COFs) in renewable energy fields is greatly limited due to their non-conjugated skeletons. Here, we design and successfully synthesize a thiophene-enriched fully conjugated 3D COF (BUCT-COF-11) through an all-thiophene-linked saddle-shaped building block (COThTh-CHO). The BUCT-COF-11 exhibits excellent semiconducting property with intrinsic metal-free oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity. Using the COF as cathode catalyst, the assembled anion-exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) exhibited a high peak power density up to 493 mW cm-2 . DFT calculations reveal that thiophene introduction in the COF not only improves the conductivity but also optimizes the electronic structure of the sample, which therefore boosts the ORR performance. This is the first report on the application of COFs as metal-free catalysts in fuel cells, demonstrating the great potential of fully conjugated 3D COFs as promising semiconductors in energy fields.

The Impact of Radiofrequency Wide Circumferential Pulmonary Vein Isolation on Left Atrial Geometry in Patients with Recurrent Atrial Fibrillation.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of wide area circumferential radiofrequency catheter ablation (WACA) pulmonary vein isolation on left atrium (LA) geometry. METHODS: Seventy-one patients underwent WACA, for recurrent paroxysmal (n = 31) and persistent (n = 40) atrial fibrillation (AF). A three-dimension rotational angiography of the LA was obtained immediately prior to index and repeat procedure. RESULTS: Significant reduction of LA volume (65.6 ± 14 mL/m2 vs. 62.2 ± 15 mL/m2, p < 0.001) and surface (74.4 ± 11.2 vs. 70.4 ± 11.2 cm2/m2, p < 0.001) was noted. LA sphericity increased significantly (82 ± 2% vs. 83 ± 2%, p = 0.004) in all 71 patients. Patients with paroxysmal AF showed significant reduction of LA volume (121.8 ± 25.7 vs. 116 ± 32 mL, p = 0.008) and increase of LA sphericity (82.3 ± 2.1 vs. 83.1 ± 2%, p = 0.009). Patients with persistent AF showed significant decrease of LA volume (133.5 ± 32 vs. 126 ± 32 mL, p = 0.005) and LA surface area (76.3 ± 12.3 vs. 71.8 ± 12.4 cm2/m2, p = 0.005). LA sphericity (82.4 ± 2.8 vs. 83 ± 2.4%, p = ns) remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: WACA results into significant reduction of LA volume and surface area. Increased LA sphericity is observed in paroxysmal AF only.

A tricuspid mitral valve with severe regurgitation.

Tricuspid mitral valve is a rare entity, distinct from isolated clefts of the mitral leaflets. Echocardiographically, it manifests as the presence of three commissures, separate papillary muscles and concordant atrioventricular or ventriculoarterial connections. Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography helps distinguish the three cusps from clefts. Herein, we present a case of tricuspid mitral valve that led to severe mitral regurgitation.

In Vivo Label-Free Observation of Tumor-Related Blood Vessels in Small Animals Using a Newly Designed Photoacoustic 3D Imaging System.

Photoacoustic (PA) technology can be used for non-invasive imaging of blood vessels. In this paper, we report on our prototype PA imaging system with a newly designed ultrasound sensor and its visualization performance of microvascular in animal. We fabricated an experimental system for animals using a high-frequency sensor. The system has two modes: still image mode by wide scanning and moving image mode by small rotation of sensor array. Optical test target, euthanized mice and rats, and live mice were used as objects. The results of optical test target showed that the spatial resolution was about two times higher than that of our conventional prototype. The image performance in vivo was evaluated in euthanized healthy mice and rats, allowing visualization of detailed blood vessels in the liver and kidneys. In tumor-bearing mice, different results of vascular induction were shown depending on the type of tumor and the method of transplantation. By utilizing the video imaging function, we were able to observe the movement of blood vessels around the tumor. We have demonstrated the feasibility of the system as a less invasive animal experimental device, as it can acquire vascular images in animals in a non-contrast and non-invasive manner.

Comparison of stability and outcomes of surgery-first bimaxillary surgery for skeletal class III deformity between unilateral and bilateral cleft lip and palate.

OBJECTIVES: Some adults with cleft lip and palate (CLP) require orthognathic surgery due to skeletal deformity. This prospective study aimed to (1) compare skeletal stability following bimaxillary surgery for correction of class III deformity between patients with unilateral CLP (UCLP) and bilateral CLP (BCLP), and (2) identify risk factors of stability. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adults with CLP and skeletal class III deformities who underwent surgery-first bimaxillary surgery were divided into two groups according to cleft type: UCLP (n = 30) and BCLP (n = 30). Skeletal stability was assessed with measures from cone beam computed tomography images of the maxilla and mandible taken before treatment, 1-week and ≥ 1 year postsurgery for translation (left/right, posterior/anterior, superior/inferior) and rotation (yaw, roll, pitch); multiple regression analysis examined risk factors. RESULTS: At follow-up, the maxilla moved upwards in both groups, and backwards in the UCLP group. The mandible moved forward and upward, shifted to the cleft (deviated) side, and rotated upward in both groups. The amount of surgical advancement was a risk factor for sagittal stability in the maxilla (ß = -0.14, p < 0.05). The mandible had three risk factors for sagittal stability: age (ß = -0.23, p < 0.05), surgical team (ß = -1.83, p < 0.05), and amount of surgical setback (ß = -0.32, p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Two years after bimaxillary surgery, patients with UCLP had a higher sagittal relapse of the maxilla compared with patients with BCLP, which was due to a greater surgical advancement in the patients with UCLP. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Surgery-first bimaxillary surgery results in favorable treatment outcomes for correction of cleft-related class III deformity. Severity of jaw discrepancy and surgeons should be considered in the surgical design of overcorrection.

Effects of Insect Density, Movement Period, and Temperature on Three-Dimensional Movement and Distribution of Adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae).

Knowledge on three-dimensional (3D) movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) in grain bulks assists in the prediction of their distribution inside a bin. The following experiments were conducted to determine the 3D dispersal patterns of adult C. ferrugineus in wheat with 14.5% moisture content: 1) at various insect densities (0.35, 1.77 and 3.53 A/kg (adults/kg) at 20°C and in 24 h movement period; 2) in different movement periods (6, 24, and 72 h) at 20°C and 0.35 A/kg insect density; and 3) at different temperatures (20, 30 and 35°C) at 0.35 A/kg density in 24 h movement period. To create the densities of 0.35, 1.77, and 3.53 A/kg, 100, 500, and 1,000 adults were introduced in about 285 kg wheat, respectively. The 285 kg of wheat was kept in 343 mesh cubes, which in turn were packed in a wooden box. The introduced adults were counted at the end of the movement periods. Adult C. ferrugineus tended to move downward from the point of introduction, and then diffused throughout the grain bulk. The effects of insect densities, movement periods, and temperatures on the dispersion pattern of insects were similar in 1D columns, 2D chambers, and 3D grain bulk.

From 2D to 3D Co-Culture Systems: A Review of Co-Culture Models to Study the Neural Cells Interaction.

The central nervous system (CNS) controls and regulates the functional activities of the organ systems and maintains the unity between the body and the external environment. The advent of co-culture systems has made it possible to elucidate the interactions between neural cells in vitro and to reproduce complex neural circuits. Here, we classified the co-culture system as a two-dimensional (2D) co-culture system, a cell-based three-dimensional (3D) co-culture system, a tissue slice-based 3D co-culture system, an organoid-based 3D co-culture system, and a microfluidic platform-based 3D co-culture system. We provide an overview of these different co-culture models and their applications in the study of neural cell interaction. The application of co-culture systems in virus-infected CNS disease models is also discussed here. Finally, the direction of the co-culture system in future research is prospected.

The Creation of High-Resolution Brain Cross-sections for 3D Printing and Virtual Reality Applications.

Technologies such as 3D printing and virtual/augmented reality have great potential for improving the teaching of highly spatial topics such as neuroanatomy. We created a set of 3D printed and virtual brain cross-sections using a high-resolution MRI dataset. These resources have been made freely available via online repositories. We also report a pilot study of the use of both the physical and virtual specimens in the classroom. Students completed a lab exercise where they used either the 3D printed or virtual brain sections to order a set of axial slices from dorsal to ventral. They then labeled the different structures that they found useful in determining the slices' positions. We measured the students' ability to localize 2D brain cross-sections before and after the lab exercise. Overall, we saw pre- to post-test increases in accuracy on a brain cross-sections task compared to a lecture-based neuroanatomy instruction.