Mining from the pipeline: Artisanal oil refining as a consequence of failed CSR policies in the Niger Delta.

Oil production in the Niger Delta first attained global prominence after the 1995 hangings of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogonis. In the face of horrible publicity and credible allegations that international oil companies were complicit in systematic human rights violations against local host communities, corporate social responsibility (CSR) was embraced. CSR in the Nigerian oil industry has evolved from non-existent to limited community development programs to today's Global Memorandum of Understanding model. Yet, concomitant with CSR's growth has been a devastating increase in artisanal oil refining or "bunkering." In this article, we do not focus on industrial scale bunkering, which clearly requires high-level political support. Instead, we focus on the growth of small-scale artisanal refining in the rural Niger Delta. We situate this sector's growth in failed government and CSR policies, highlight its devastating environmental impacts, and advocate a shift away from flawed and limited CSR to legal and regulated modular refineries that, with fewer negative developmental and environmental externalities, could serve as a vital source of job creation and wealth generation.

Socio-economic baseline for oil-impacted communities in Ogoniland: towards a restoration framework in Niger Delta, Nigeria.

This study documents the socio-economic baselines in selected oil-impacted communities prior to the commencement of the Ogoni clean-up and restoration project. Adopting mixed approach consisting of semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs), and household surveys, we surveyed the pre-remediation socio-economic conditions in the Ogoniland communities between July 2018 and March 2019. Results indicated that almost all respondents (99.6%) agreed that the smell of petroleum products or crude oil was evident in the air they breathed even as there were visible black particles (soot) in the respondents' nostrils, on their clothes, and in water. The respondents described the ambient air as smoky and choked with an offensive smell. The household waters were smelly, brownish, or oily, and most respondents (76%) cannot afford to treat their water. Forty-two percent of the respondents who relied on fishing and farming for a living sought for alternative means of subsistence and acknowledged that oil pollution caused stunted growth and low crop yield. The majority of respondents (91%) reported falling fish catches, while the fish caught smell and taste of oil, lowering their market value and posing a potential health risk to consumers. It is evident that oil pollution has impacted the socio-ecological values and sustainable livelihood in Ogoniland. This study provides baseline data for monitoring post-remediation socio-economic improvements in Ogoniland. It also highlights areas of urgent intervention to improve livelihood, and access to basic amenities (e.g., potable drinking water), waste management infrastructure, and statutory policy changes for sustainable development in Ogoniland.

The Economic Cost of Tobacco Farming in Bangladesh.

The extent of tobacco cultivation remains substantially high in Bangladesh, which is the 12th largest tobacco producer in the world. Using data from a household survey of current, former, and never tobacco farmers, based on a multi-stage stratified sampling design with a mix of purposive and random sampling of households, this study estimated the financial and economic profitability per acre of land used for tobacco cultivation. The environmental effects of tobacco cultivation on land and water resources were estimated using laboratory tests of sample water and soil collected from tobacco-cultivating and non-tobacco cultivating areas. The study finds that tobacco cultivation turns into a losing concern when the opportunity costs of unpaid family labour and other owned resources, and the health effects of tobacco cultivation are included. Tobacco cultivation poses a significantly high environmental cost that causes a net loss to society. Nevertheless, the availability of unpaid family labour and the options of advanced credit as well as a buy back guarantee from the tobacco companies attract farmers to engage in and continue tobacco cultivation. Therefore, supply side interventions to curb the tobacco epidemic in Bangladesh need to address major drivers of tobacco cultivation to correct the wrong incentives and motivate tobacco farmers to switch to alternative livelihood options.

In-and-Out of Tobacco Farming: Shifting Behavior of Tobacco Farmers in Indonesia.

Understanding the variables that affect farmers' decisions as to whether to grow tobacco and/or other crops provides important insights into their economic lives and can help to inform the development and implementation of policies that shape both tobacco production and tobacco control, such as increasing tobacco excise taxes. This study employs complementary quantitative and qualitative methodologies to identify variables that affect tobacco farmers' economic decision making in Indonesia, a major tobacco producer. The research focuses on the variables that affect tobacco farmers' decisions to continue tobacco farming or shift to non-tobacco farming. It finds that tobacco farmers' decision making is complex but also predictable. The results of the quantitative analysis suggest that farming profits and positive rainfall shocks are two of the key variables that affect the decision to cultivate tobacco. The qualitative results confirm these findings and further illuminate that access to credit, education (agricultural and otherwise) and information play substantial roles in farmers' economic decision making. Most of these variables are affected by the unequal relationship between the tobacco firms that buy tobacco and the farmers, wherein the farmers are consistently at a disadvantage in terms of negotiating key parameters such as prices and evaluation of leaf quality.

Integrated Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana - Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.

This article is one of three synthesis reports resulting from an integrated assessment (IA) of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Ghana. Given the complexities that involve multiple drivers and diverse disciplines influencing ASGM, an IA framework was used to analyze economic, social, health, and environmental data and to co-develop evidence-based responses in collaboration with pertinent stakeholders. We look at both micro- and macro-economic processes surrounding ASGM, including causes, challenges, and consequences. At the micro-level, social and economic evidence suggests that the principal reasons whereby most people engage in ASGM involve "push" factors aimed at meeting livelihood goals. ASGM provides an important source of income for both proximate and distant communities, representing a means of survival for impoverished farmers as well as an engine for small business growth. However, miners and their families often end up in a "poverty trap" of low productivity and indebtedness, which reduce even further their economic options. At a macro level, Ghana's ASGM activities contribute significantly to the national economy even though they are sometimes operating illegally and at a disadvantage compared to large-scale industrial mining companies. Nevertheless, complex issues of land tenure, social stability, mining regulation and taxation, and environmental degradation undermine the viability and sustainability of ASGM as a livelihood strategy. Although more research is needed to understand these complex relationships, we point to key findings and insights from social science and economics research that can guide policies and actions aimed to address the unique challenges of ASGM in Ghana and elsewhere.