Efficient Turn-On Zr Based Metal Organic Framework Fluorescent Sensor for Ultrafast Detection of Danofloxacin in Milk Samples.

Metal organic framework, UiO-67 was synthesized by coordinating Zr(IV) with 4,4'-biphenyldicarboxylic acid (BPDC) ligand. Morphology and crystallinity of MOF was confirmed with FE-SEM and PXRD procedure. Danofloxacin (DANO), a veterinary fluoroquinolone antibiotic, was detected in milk by employing UiO-67 as "turn-on" fluorescent sensor. Original photoluminescent (PL) efficiency of UiO-67 sensor was enhanced on its electronic interaction with DANO molecule. Significant PL efficiency enhancement, lower detection limit 0.49 ng/mL (1.37 nM), swift detection (time < 1 min), and excellent linear correlation (R2 = 0.9988) indicated extraordinary sensitivity of developed UiO-67 sensor for DANO. Selectivity and performance of sensor was unaltered in presence of interfering species and detection results were obtained under permissible variation limits. Method applied successfully for ultra-trace detection of DANO residues in milk samples.

Pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin after single oral and intravenous administration in non-laying hens.

The current study aimed to explore the pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in non-laying hens after a single oral (PO) and intravenous (IV) dose, both at 5 mg/kg body weight (BW). Eighteen 13-week-old healthy hens were equally and randomly divided into two groups. After both doses, blood samples (approximately 1 ml) were collected at different time points. Danofloxacin concentrations were quantified by a validated high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method followed by a non-compartmental analysis using the software of WinNonLin. The elimination half-lives (t1/2λz s) after PO and IV routes were determined as 8.15 ± 3.37 and 7.69 ± 3.40 h, respectively. After IV administration, danofloxacin had an initial concentration (C0 ) of 3.62 µg/ml, a volume of distribution at steady state (VSS ) of 3579.72 ± 454.29 ml/kg, and a total body clearance (Cl) of 0.49 ml/h/g. After PO administration, the absolute bioavailability and absorption half-life (t1/2ka ) were calculated as 100.99% ± 23.10% and 0.82 ± 0.58 h, respectively. Based on the calculated ratio values of AUC/MIC and Cmax /MIC, an oral dose of 5 mg/kg danofloxacin would be expected to successfully treat hens infected with strains with MIC values ≤0.1 µg/ml.

Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of danofloxacin in swan geese (Anser cygnoides) following intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and oral administrations.

The aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of danofloxacin in swan geese (Anser cygnoides) after intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), and oral (PO) administrations at 10 mg/kg dose. In this study, eight clinically healthy swan geese were used. The study was performed in four periods according to a crossover design with a 15 days washout period between two administrations. The plasma concentrations of danofloxacin were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatograph-ultraviolet detection, and pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated by non-compartmental analysis. Following IV administration, terminal elimination half-life (t1/2ʎz ), total clearance, and volume of distribution at steady state were 6.03 h, 0.34 L/h/kg, and 2.71 L/h/kg, respectively. After IM, SC, and PO administration, t1/2ʎz was longer than that after IV administration. The Cmax of danofloxacin following IM, SC, and PO administrations was 3.65, 2.76, and 1.98 µg/mL at 0.63, 1, and 2 h, respectively. The bioavailability following IM, SC, and PO administrations was 87.99, 72.77, and 57.68%, respectively. This information may help in the use of danofloxacin in geese, yet the determination of optimal dosage regimen and pharmacodynamic studies are needed.

Influence of Escherichia coli endotoxemia on danofloxacin pharmacokinetics in broilers following single oral administration.

As a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent, danofloxacin is mainly used to treat avian bacterial and mycoplasma infections. The pharmacokinetic characteristics of danofloxacin are usually explored in healthy animals, while those in endotoxemic broilers are still rare. This study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in endotoxemic broilers induced by Escherichia coli (E. coli) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) after single oral administration. Ten healthy 5-week-old Arbor Acres (AA) broilers with similar body weight (BW) were randomly and equally divided into LPS and control groups. The LPS group was intravenously injected with an LPS of E. coli O55: B5 at 2.5 mg/kg BW, and the control group was intravenously injected with the same volume of sterile saline. Danofloxacin was administered orally at a dose of 5 mg/kg BW immediately 1 h after the intravenous injection of LPS or sterile saline. Rectal temperature was measured at predetermined times points in all broilers, and plasma and serum samples were taken. The interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in serum samples were detected by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits, and danofloxacin concentrations in plasma were detected through the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method and subjected to a compartmental analysis using Phoenix software. The LPS challenge led to biphasic adaptive changes in broiler body temperature and increased the levels of IL-6. Compared with the control group, LPS treatment significantly prolonged the time to the peak concentration (LPS: 8.75 ± 3.88 h; Control: 3.20 ± 2.20 h). However, there were no significant differences in the other pharmacokinetic parameters between both groups.

Pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis) after intramuscular injection.

The present study evaluated the pharmacokinetic profiles of danofloxacin (DNX) in freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis), following single intramuscular (i.m.) administrations at two different dosages of 6 and 12 mg/kg body weight (b.w.). Blood samples were collected at assigned times up to 168 h. DNX in the harvested crocodile plasma was extracted using liquid-liquid extraction and analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography method equipped with fluorescence detection. The pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using a non-compartmental approach. DNX in plasma was quantifiable from 5 min to 168 h after i.m. administration at the two dosages in freshwater crocodiles. The area under the curve (AUC) and maximum concentration (Cmax ) values increased in a dose-dependent fashion. Long elimination half-life (48.18 and 67.29 h) and low clearance (0.024 and 0.020 ml/g h) were obtained in the high- and low-dose groups, respectively. According to the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic surrogate (AUC0-24h /MIC > 125), i.m. single administration of DNX at a dosage of 6 mg/kg b.w. is predicted to have antibacterial success for disease caused by bacteria with MIC < 0.04 µg/ml in the freshwater crocodile, C. siamensis.

Pharmacokinetic characteristics of danofloxacin in green sea (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill sea (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtles.

To date, the number of green sea and hawksbill sea turtles is in decline due to environmental, anthropogenic, and pathological factors. The present study described the pharmacokinetic characteristics of danofloxacin (DNX) in green sea and hawksbill sea turtles, following single intravenous (i.v.) and intramuscular (i.m.) administrations at single dosages of 6 mg/kg body weight (b.w.). Blood samples were collected at assigned times up to 168 h. DNX in the harvested plasma was cleaned up using liquid-liquid extraction and analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection. The pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using a non-compartmental approach. DNX was quantifiable from 5 min to 168 h after i.v. and i.m. administrations at an identical dosage in both turtle types. No statistical differences were found in the pharmacokinetic parameters between green sea and hawksbill sea turtles. The long elimination half-life value of DNX obtained in green sea (35 h) and hawksbill sea (30.21 h) turtles was consistent with the quite large volume of distribution and the slow clearance rate. The high values of absolute bioavailability (87%-94%) should be advantageous for clinical use of DNX in sea turtles. According to the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic surrogate (AUC0-24 /MIC > 125), DNX is predicted to have antibacterial success for disease caused by bacteria with MIC < 0.04 µg/ml.

Susceptibility of caprine mastitis pathogens to tildipirosin, gamithromycin, oxytetracycline, and danofloxacin: effect of serum on the in vitro potency of current macrolides.

Mastitis is a significant disease in dairy ruminants, causing economic losses to the livestock industry and severe risks to public health. Antibiotic therapy is one of the most crucial practices to treat mastitis, although the susceptibility of caprine mastitis pathogens to current antibiotics has not been tested under standard or modified incubation conditions. This work evaluated the in vitro activity of tildipirosin, gamithromycin, oxytetracycline, and danofloxacin against caprine mastitis pathogens incubated following standard conditions of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and deviation method by 25% supplementation with goat serum. Mycoplasma agalactiae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp., and coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CNS) were isolated from dairy goats with mastitis in Spain. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined using the broth microdilution technique. The lowest MIC90 under standard conditions was obtained with danofloxacin for mastitis-causing pathogens. An exception was M. agalactiae, where danofloxacin and oxytetracycline obtained low values. However, after adding serum, gamithromycin showed the lowest MIC50 for S. aureus, Streptococcus spp., and CNS. The lowest MIC50 was obtained with all the antibiotics tested (< 0.125 µg/ml) against M. agalactiae. Supplementing with serum resulted in a significant variation in tildipirosin and gamithromycin MIC values for CNS, S. aureus, M. agalagtiae, and E. coli. In brief, the MIC for antibiotics used against mastitis should be determined under conditions closely resembling intramammary infections to obtain representative susceptibility patterns against mastitis pathogens. Caprine mastitis pathogens were broadly susceptible to danofloxacin under standard conditions. The potency of macrolides against caprine mastitis pathogens increases when serum is present in culture media.

Dual-mode immunoassay system based on glucose oxidase-triggered Fenton reaction for qualitative and quantitative detection of danofloxacin in milk.

In this study, a novel colorimetric and fluorescent dual-mode ELISA based on glucose oxidase (GOx)-triggered Fenton reaction was developed for the qualitative and quantitative detection of danofloxacin (DAN). In this system, streptavidin-linked biotinylated anti-DAN-monoclonal antibody (SA-Bio-mAb) and biotinylated GOx (Bio-GOx) form the immune complex mAb-Bio-SA-Bio-GOx. In the absence of DAN, the mAb-Bio-SA-Bio-GOx would be immobilized by combining with coated DAN-BSA and catalyzed glucose to generate H2O2. The Fenton reaction between H2O2 and Fe2+ generated hydroxyl radicals, which oxidized the o-phenylenediamine to 2,3-diamino-phenazine. A dual-signal immunoassay with colorimetry and fluorescence as the signal readout was established. In the presence of DAN, DAN and DAN-BSA competed with Bio-mAb, decreasing the connection between immune complexes and DAN-BSA and finally resulting in lower signal of colorimetry and fluorescence. Under optimal conditions, the limit of detection of the fluorescence immunoassay was 0.337 ng/mL and was 5.24-fold lower than that of traditional ELISA. The colorimetric immunoassay cut-off value was 30 ng/mL in milk. The average recoveries of the method for milk samples that are spiked with different concentrations of DAN were 91.1 to 128.3%, with a coefficient of variation of 0.7 to 8.2%. These results of the method exhibited good agreement with those of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry system (LC-MS/MS) method. In brief, this work provides an improved screening strategy with high sensitivity and accuracy for the qualitative or quantitative detection of DAN in milk monitoring.

Susceptibility breakpoint for Danofloxacin against swine Escherichia coli.

BACKGROUND: Improper use of antimicrobials results in poor treatment and severe bacterial resistance. Breakpoints are routinely used in the clinical laboratory setting to guide clinical decision making. Therefore, the objective of this study was to establish antimicrobial susceptibility breakpoints for danofloxacin against Escherichia coli (E.coli), which is an important pathogen of digestive tract infections. RESULTS: The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 1233 E. coli isolates were determined by the microdilution broth method in accordance with the guidelines in Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) document M07-A9. The wild type (WT) distribution or epidemiologic cutoff value (ECV) was set at 8 µg/mL with statistical analysis. Plasma drug concentration data were used to establish pharmacokinetic (PK) model in swine. The in vitro time kill test in our study demonstrated that danofloxacin have concentration dependent activity against E.coli. The PK data indicated that danofloxacin concentration in plasma was rapidly increased to peak levels at 0.97 h and remained detectable until 48 h after drug administration. The pharmacodynamic cutoff (COPD) was determined as 0.03 µg/mL using Monte Carlo simulation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to establish the ECV and COPD of danofloxacin against E.coli with statistical method. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to the COPD of danofloxacin against E.coli (0.03 µg/mL), the ECV for E.coli seemed reasonable to be used as the final breakpoint of danofloxacin against E.coli in pigs. Therefore, the ECV (MIC ≤8 µg/mL) was finally selected as the optimum danofloxacin susceptibility breakpoint for swine E.coli. In summary, this study provides a criterion for susceptibility testing and improves prudent use of danofloxacin for protecting public health.

Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of danofloxacin in chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) following intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and oral administrations.

The aim of the present study was to determine the pharmacokinetics (PKs) and bioavailability of danofloxacin in chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) following intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), and oral (PO) administrations at a dose of 10 mg/kg. A total of eight clinically healthy chukar partridges weighing 480 ± 45 g were used for the investigation. The study was performed in a crossover design (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) with a 15-day washout period between two administrations in four periods. The plasma concentrations of danofloxacin were determined using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Noncompartmental PK parameters were also estimated. No local or systemic adverse drug effects were observed in any of the chukar partridges. The mean elimination half-life ranged between 8.18 and 12.08 hr and differed statistically among administration routes. The mean peak plasma concentrations of danofloxacin following IM, SC, and PO administrations were 8.05, 9.58, and 3.39 µg/ml at 0.5, 1, and 4 hr, respectively. Following IM, SC, and PO administrations, the mean bioavailability was 86.33%, 134.40%, and 47.62%, respectively. The mean total clearance and volume of distribution at steady-state following IV administration were 0.13 L hr-1  kg-1 and 0.96 L/kg, respectively. These data, including favorable PKs and the absence of adverse drug effects, suggest that danofloxacin is a useful antibiotic in chukar partridges.

Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin and danofloxacin in premature calves.

The aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of enrofloxacin (ENR) and danofloxacin (DNX) following intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) administrations in premature calves. The study was performed on twenty-four calves that were determined to be premature by anamnesis and general clinical examination. Premature calves were randomly divided into four groups (six premature calves/group) according to a parallel pharmacokinetic (PK) design as follows: ENR-IV (10 mg/kg, IV), ENR-IM (10 mg/kg, IM), DNX-IV (8 mg/kg, IV), and DNX-IM (8 mg/kg, IM). Plasma samples were collected for the determination of tested drugs by high-pressure liquid chromatography with UV detector and analyzed by noncompartmental methods. Mean PK parameters of ENR and DNX following IV administration were as follows: elimination half-life (t1/2λz ) 11.16 and 17.47 hr, area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0-48 ) 139.75 and 38.90 hr*µg/ml, and volume of distribution at steady-state 1.06 and 4.45 L/kg, respectively. Total body clearance of ENR and DNX was 0.07 and 0.18 L hr-1  kg-1 , respectively. The PK parameters of ENR and DNX following IM injection were t1/2λz 21.10 and 28.41 hr, AUC0-48 164.34 and 48.32 hr*µg/ml, respectively. The bioavailability (F) of ENR and DNX was determined to be 118% and 124%, respectively. The mean AUC0-48CPR /AUC0-48ENR ratio was 0.20 and 0.16 after IV and IM administration, respectively, in premature calves. The results showed that ENR (10 mg/kg) and DNX (8 mg/kg) following IV and IM administration produced sufficient plasma concentration for AUC0-24 /minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and maximum concentration (Cmax )/MIC ratios for susceptible bacteria, with the MIC90 of 0.5 and 0.03 µg/ml, respectively. These findings may be helpful in planning the dosage regimen for ENR and DNX, but there is a need for further study in naturally infected premature calves.

Population pharmacokinetics for danofloxacin in the intestinal contents of healthy and infected chickens.

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli could cause localized and systemic infection in the poultry, and danofloxacin is usually used to treat avian colibacillosis through oral administration. To promote prudent use of danofloxacin and reduce the emergence of drug-resistant E. coli strains, it is necessary to understand the population pharmacokinetics (PopPK) of danofloxacin in chicken intestines. In this study, reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection was used to detect the concentrations of danofloxacin in the contents of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum of the healthy and infected chickens after single oral administration (5 mg/kg body weight). Then, the PopPK of danofloxacin in intestines were analyzed using NONMEM software. As a result, a two-compartment PK model best described the time-concentration profile of duodenal, jejunal, and ileal contents. Interestingly, absorption rate (Ka ), distribution volume (V), and clearance (CL) for danofloxacin from duodenal, jejunal to ileal contents were sequentially decreased in the healthy chickens. However, the trend of Ka , V, and CL of danofloxacin was changed dramatically in the intestine of infected chickens. Ka and V of danofloxacin in the jejunum were higher than in the ileum and duodenum. Compared with healthy chickens, Ka and V of danofloxacin in the duodenum decreased significantly, while increased in jejunum, respectively. It has been noted that Ka decreased and V increased in the ileum of infected chickens. Besides, CL in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum of infected chickens was, respectively, lower than those of healthy chickens. Interestingly, the relative bioavailability (F) of danofloxacin in the ileum was relatively higher in both healthy and infected chickens. In addition, F in the duodenal, jejunal, and ileal contents of infected chickens was respectively higher than healthy chickens. In summary, the PopPK for danofloxacin in infected chicken intestines was quite different from healthy chickens. The absorption, distribution, and clearance of danofloxacin in healthy chickens decreased from duodenum to jejunum and to ileum. Moreover, the pharmacokinetic characteristics in the intestine of infected chickens changed significantly, and the pharmacokinetic characteristics in the ileum can be used as a representative of all intestinal segments.

Pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) after intravenous and intramuscular administrations.

The plasma pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin was studied in healthy African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) following a single intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) administration of 10 mg/kg at 22 °C. Catfish were divided into two groups (each group containing 78 fish), then danofloxacin mesylate (10 mg/kg) was administered IV (into the caudal vein) in Group 1 and IM (into the right epaxial muscle) in Group 2, and blood was obtained from the caudal vein before (0 h) and after (0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72 and 96 h) of drug administration. High-performance liquid chromatography was used for the determination of plasma concentration, and a non-compartmental model was used for the analysis of pharmacokinetic parameters. After IV administration, elimination half-life (t1/2λz, 24.49 h), mean residence time (MRT, 30.14 h), volume of distribution at steady state (Vdss, 1.07 L/kg) and total body clearance (CLT, 0.035 L/h/kg) were determined. After IM administration, t1/2λz, MRT, peak concentration (Cmax), time to reach Cmax and bioavailability were 47.64 h, 61.06 h, 5.22 µg/mL, 1 h and 67.12%, respectively. After IM administration, danofloxacin showed good bioavailability and long t1/2λz. The favourable pharmacokinetic characteristics after IM administration support the use of danofloxacin for the treatment of susceptible bacterial infections in catfish.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Danofloxacin After Single Intramuscular Dose Administration in California Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis californicus).

The pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin was investigated in rehabilitated California brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis californicus) after a single intramuscular injection at a dose of 15 mg/kg body weight. The concentration of the drug in plasma was assayed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. A sparse-sampling design was used to reduce the number of samples (1-4 venipunctures) obtained from 24 brown pelicans. A population pharmacokinetic analysis with nonlinear mixed-effects modeling was used to accommodate the sparse-sampling strategy. The nonlinear mixed-effects modeling approach measured both fixed effects (typical values for the population) and random effects (between-subject variability) for this population. A 1-compartment model best represented the concentration-versus-time data after injection. After injection, the elimination half-life, peak concentration, area under the curve, and volume of distribution were 2.76 hours, 2.5 µg/mL, 13.75 µg/h/mL, and 4.35 L/kg, respectively. Rate of absorption was highly variable among the birds. The intramuscular injection of danofloxacin in pelicans at this dose produced plasma concentrations that meet therapeutic targets for bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration of ≤0.25 µg/mL. This dose can be used for future studies to evaluate the efficacy of danofloxacin for treating susceptible bacteria.

Flaxseed-enriched diets change milk concentration of the antimicrobial danofloxacin in sheep.

BACKGROUND: Flaxseed is the most common and rich dietary source of lignans and is an acceptable supply of energy for livestock. Flaxseed lignans are precursors of enterolignans, mainly enterolactone and enterodiol, produced by the rumen and intestinal microbiota of mammals and have many important biological properties as phytoestrogens. Potential food-drug interactions involving flaxseed may be relevant for veterinary therapy, and for the quality and safety of milk and dairy products. Our aim was to investigate a potential food-drug interaction involving flaxseed, to explore whether the inclusion of flaxseed in sheep diet affects concentration of the antimicrobial danofloxacin in milk. RESULTS: Increased concentrations of enterodiol and enterolactone were observed in sheep plasma and milk after 2 weeks of flaxseed supplementation (P < 0.05). However, enterolactone and enterodiol conjugates were not detected in milk. Milk danofloxacin pharmacokinetics showed that area under the curve (AUC)0-24, maximum concentration (Cmax) and AUC0-24 milk-to-plasma ratios were reduced by 25-30% in sheep fed flaxseed-enriched diets (P < 0.05). Our results demonstrate, therefore, that flaxseed-enriched diets reduce the amount of danofloxacin in sheep milk and enrich the milk content of lignan-derivatives. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight an effect of flaxseed-enriched diets on the concentration of antimicrobials in ruminant's milk, revealing the potential of these modified diets for the control of residues of antimicrobial drugs in milk.

Comparative pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in healthy and Pasteurella multocida infected ducks.

Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida) infection causes substantial economic loss in the duck industry. Danofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone solely used in animals, shows good antibacterial activity against P. multocida. In this study, the in vitro pharmacodynamics of danofloxacin against P. multocida was studied. The serum and lung tissue pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin were studied in healthy and P. multocida infected ducks following oral administration of a single dose of 5 mg/kg body weight (b.w.). The MIC, MBC and MPC of danofloxacin against P. multocida (C48-1 ) were 0.25, 1 and 3.2 µg/ml, respectively. The Cmax was 0.34 µg/ml, attained at 2.03 hr in healthy ducks, and was 0.35 µg/ml, attained at 2.87 hr in diseased ducks. Compared to the serum pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in healthy ducks, the absorption rate and extent were similar in healthy and diseased animals. In contrast, the elimination rate was slower, with an elimination half-life (T1/2ß ) of 13.17 and 16.18 hr for healthy and infected animals, respectively; the AUCs in the two groups were 5.70 and 7.68 µg hr/ml, respectively, which means the total amount of drug in the circulation was increased in the infected ducks. The maximum concentration in lung tissues between healthy and infected animals was not significantly different (8.96 vs. 8.93 µg/g). However, the Tmax in healthy ducks was longer than that in infected ducks (4 hr vs. 1.75 hr), which means that the distribution rate of danofloxacin was slower in healthy ducks. The concentration of danofloxacin in lung tissues was approximately 24-fold higher than that in the serum. In the serum pharmacokinetic profiles, the ƒAUC0-24 hr /MIC was 18.19 in healthy ducks and was 25.04 in P. multocida infected ducks at the clinical recommended dose, which is far from the PK/PD target (125 hr) of fluoroquinolones. Danofloxacin, at a dose of 5 mg/kg b.w., seems to be insufficient for ducks infected with P. multocida, with an MIC equal to 0.25 µg/ml.

Short communication: The gain-of-function Y581S polymorphism of the ABCG2 transporter increases secretion into milk of danofloxacin at the therapeutic dose for mastitis treatment.

The ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCG2 restricts the exposure of certain drugs and natural compounds in different tissues and organs. Its expression in the mammary gland is induced during lactation and is responsible for the active secretion of many compounds into milk, including antimicrobial agents. This particular function of ABCG2 may affect drug efficacy against mastitis and the potential presence of drug residues in the milk. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies showed increased transport of several compounds, including fluoroquinolones, by the bovine ABCG2 Y581S polymorphism. Our main purpose was to study the potential effect of this bovine ABCG2 polymorphism on the secretion into milk of the antimicrobial danofloxacin administered at the therapeutic dose of 6mg/kg used for mastitis treatment. In addition, the effect of this polymorphism on the relative mRNA and protein levels of ABCG2 by quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot were studied. Danofloxacin 18% (6mg/kg) was administered to 6 Y/Y homozygous and 5 Y/S heterozygous cows. Danofloxacin levels in milk and milk-to-plasma concentration ratios were almost 1.5- and 2-fold higher, respectively, in Y/S cows compared with the Y/Y cows, showing a higher capacity of this variant to transport danofloxacin into milk. Furthermore, the higher activity of this polymorphism is not linked to higher ABCG2 mRNA or protein levels. These results demonstrate the relevant effect of the Y581S polymorphism of the bovine ABCG2 transporter in the secretion into milk of danofloxacin after administration of 6mg/kg, with potentially important consequences for mastitis treatment and for milk residue handling.

In vitro selection of RNA aptamers that selectively bind danofloxacin.

Danofloxacin is a synthetic fluoroquinolone with broad spectrum antibacterial activity that is used for the treatment of respiratory diseases in animal husbandry. However, danofloxacin has many adverse reactions and is toxic to humans. Especially, it detrimentally affects muscle, central nerve system, peripheral nerve system, liver, and skin in those who ingest foods in which danofloxacin has accumulated. Prescreening and determination of the level of danofloxacin in foods or food products is necessary for human health. Aptamers are composing of oligonucleotides that specifically interact with target molecules. They are emerging as detection/diagnostic ligands. Here, we used the SELEX in vitro selection technology to identify specific and high-affinity RNA aptamers with 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxyribonucleotide modified pyrimidine nucleotides against danofloxacin. Selected RNA aptamers bound specifically to danofloxacin, but not to tetracycline. Truncation of RNA aptamer up to 36 mer did not comprise specificity and affinity. The truncated RNA aptamer specifically bound to target chemical, allowing the discrimination of danofloxacin from other fluoroquinolones. The isolated specific aptamer could be a potential agent used for the rapid and cost-effective detection and sensing of danofloxacin, replacing instrumental methods including the more expensive and time-consuming methods of high performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.

In vitro antibacterial activity of danofloxacin against Escherichia coli isolated from pigeons and its pharmacokinetic in pigeons.

This experiment aimed to investigate the in vitro antimicrobial activity of danofloxacin against Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from pigeons, as well as the pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin in pigeons following oral (PO), intramuscular (IM), and intravenous (IV) administration. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of danofloxacin was first determined for 38 clinical E. coli strains using the micro broth dilution method. Subsequently, 30 healthy pigeons were weighed and randomly divided into 3 groups: IM, IV, and PO, with 10 pigeons in each group. Danofloxacin was given at 5 mg/kg body weight (BW) through 3 different routes. Blood was collected, and plasma was separated at various time points from 0 to 48 h. Plasma samples were analyzed for danofloxacin concentrations using a validated HPLC method. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using Phoenix software and a noncompartmental analytical (NCA) method. The results indicated that danofloxacin had a strong antibacterial effect on E. coli, with a MIC50 of 0.5 µg/mL. The noncompartmental analysis showed that after PO and IM administration at 5 mg/kg in pigeons, peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) of 0.61 and 1.62 µg/mL were reached at 4.5 and 0.53 h, respectively. The oral and intramuscular bioavailability (F) were 68.08% ± 24.82% and 87.82% ± 25.36%, respectively. Following IV administration, danofloxacin was widely distributed in pigeons, with volume of distribution (VZ) and volume of distribution at steady state (VSS) values of 6.11 ± 2.01 and 4.65 ± 1.62 L/kg, respectively, and was eliminated slowly, with an elimination half-life (t1/2λz) of 6.41 ± 2.15 h. Based on the calculated ratio values of AUC/MIC, the current IV, IM, and PO doses of 5 mg/kg of danofloxacin would be expected to effectively treat pigeons infected with E. coli strains with MIC values equal to or less than 0.5 µg/mL.

Comparative electrochemical study of veterinary drug danofloxacin at glassy carbon electrode and electrified liquid-liquid interface.

This work compares the electroanalytical performance of two electroanalytical systems based on (1) the glassy carbon electrode (GCE), and (2) the electrified liquid-liquid interface (eLLI), for the detection of fluoroquinolone antibiotic-danofloxacin (DANO). Our aim was to define the optimal conditions to detect the chosen analyte with two employed systems, extract a number of electroanalytical parameters, study the mechanism of the charge transfer reactions (oxidation at GCE and ion transfer across the eLLI), and to provide physicochemical constants for DANO. Detection of the chosen analyte was also performed in the spiked milk samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that directly compares the electroanalytical parameters obtained with solid electrode (in this case GCE) and eLLI. We have found that for DANO the latter provides better electroanalytical parameters (lower LOD and LOQ) as well as good selectivity when the milk was analyzed.