Exposure-safety relationship for patients with primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis treated with emapalumab.

Primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (pHLH) is an immune-mediated, hyperinflammatory disorder. Interferon-γ (IFNγ) plays a key role in the pathophysiology of pHLH. Emapalumab, a fully human, anti-IFNγ monoclonal antibody neutralizes both free and receptor-bound IFNγ. However, inhibiting IFNγ-mediated signaling could result in immune dysfunction and immunosuppression. This exploratory exposure-safety analysis investigated the relationship between emapalumab and the incidence of adverse events in patients with pHLH. Increased exposure to emapalumab was not associated with an increased predicted risk of severe adverse events, infection, or infusion-related reactions. Emapalumab was associated with a favorable and manageable safety profile across all assessed doses and treatment durations.

Salvage Therapy and Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for the Severe Cytokine Storm Syndrome of Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) can be considered as a severe cytokine storm syndrome disorder. HLH typically manifests as a life-threatening inflammatory syndrome characterized by fevers, cytopenias, hepatosplenomegaly, and various other accompanying manifestations such as coagulopathy, hepatitis or liver failure, seizures or altered mental status, and even multi-organ failure. Standard up-front treatments do not always bring HLH into remission or maintain adequate response, and salvage or alternative therapies are often needed. For patients with genetic diseases that cause HLH, curative allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation is usually offered to prevent future episodes of life-threatening HLH. Here, we will discuss the options and approaches for salvage therapy and hematopoietic cell transplantation for patients with HLH.

Anti-Interferon-γ Therapy for Cytokine Storm Syndromes.

A vast body of evidence provides support to a central role of exaggerated production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in causing hypercytokinemia and signs and symptoms of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). In this chapter, we will describe briefly the roles of IFN-γ in innate and adaptive immunity and in host defense, summarize results from animal models of primary HLH and secondary HLH with particular emphasis on targeted therapeutic approaches, review data on biomarkers associated with activation of the IFN-γ pathway, and discuss initial efficacy and safety results of IFN-γ neutralization in humans.

A Review of Current and Emerging Therapeutic Options for Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of clinical sequelae and emerging treatment options for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). DATA SOURCES: A literature search was conducted using the search terms "hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis," "hemophagocytic syndrome," "macrophage activation syndrome," and "treatment" on Ovid and PubMed from January 1, 2017, through September 28, 2022. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION: Relevant clinical trials, meta-analyses, case reports, review articles, package inserts, and guidelines to identify current and emerging therapeutic options for the management of HLH. DATA SYNTHESIS: Genetic disorders and secondary causes may trigger HLH in both children and adults. Notable improvements in the diagnosis of HLH were seen with implementation of the HLH-2004 standard diagnostic criteria; however, timely and accurate identification of HLH remain significant barriers to optimal management. Multiagent immunochemotherapy are the backbone of aggressive therapy for acutely ill patients with HLH. RELEVANCE TO PATIENT CARE AND CLINICAL PRACTICE: The global coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and emerging immune effector cell therapies have served to highlight the concerns with immune dysregulation and subsequent HLH precipitation. Without prompt identification and treatment, HLH can be fatal. Historically, the clinician's armamentarium for managing HLH was sparse, with etoposide-based protocols serving as the standard of care. Relapsed or refractory disease portends a poor prognosis and requires additional treatment options. Second- or subsequent-line options now include hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, emapalumab, alemtuzumab, anakinra, ruxolitinib, and tocilizumab. CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in diagnostic methods and novel immunosuppressive treatment strategies, including noncytotoxic immunochemotherapy, have transformed the therapeutic landscape. Unfortunately, many unanswered questions remain. Additional studies are required to optimize dosing, schedules, treatment sequences, and indications for novel treatment options.

Mutations at the C-terminus of CDC42 cause distinct hematopoietic and autoinflammatory disorders.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenic missense variants in cell division control protein 42 (CDC42) differentially affect protein function, causing a clinically wide phenotypic spectrum variably affecting neurodevelopment, hematopoiesis, and immune response. More recently, 3 variants at the C-terminus of CDC42 were proposed to similarly impact protein function and cause a novel autoinflammatory disorder. OBJECTIVES: We sought to clinically and functionally classify these variants to improve patient management. METHODS: Comparative analysis of the available clinical data and medical history of patients was performed. In vitro and in vivo studies were carried out to functionally characterize individual variants. RESULTS: Differently from what had previously been observed for the p.R186C change causing neonatal-onset cytopenia, autoinflammation, and recurrent hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, p.C188Y and p.∗192Cext∗24 promoted accelerated protein degradation. Unprenylated CDC42C188Y did not behave as a membrane-bound protein, whereas the residual CDC42∗192Cext∗24 mutant replicated the CDC42R186C behavior, being targeted to the Golgi apparatus in a palmitoylation-dependent manner. Assessment of in vitro polarized migration and development in Caenorhabditis elegans documented a loss-of-function behavior of the p.C188Y and p.∗192Cext∗24 variants. Consistently, the 3 pathogenic variants were associated with different clinical presentations, with dysmorphisms, severity, and age of onset of cytopenia and extent of autoinflammation representing major differences. CONCLUSIONS: Pathogenic variants at the CDC42 C-terminus differently impact protein stability, localization, and function, and cause different diseases, with p.R186C specifically associated with neonatal-onset pancytopenia and severe autoinflammation/hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis requiring emapalumab and bone marrow transplantation, and p.C188Y and p.∗192Cext∗24 causing anakinra-sensitive autoinflammation.

Thinking Beyond HLH: Clinical Features of Patients with Concurrent Presentation of Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis and Thrombotic Microangiopathy.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a syndrome of excessive immune system activation driven mainly by high levels of interferon gamma. The clinical presentation of HLH can have considerable overlap with other inflammatory conditions. We present a cohort of patients with therapy refractory HLH referred to our center who were found to have a simultaneous presentation of complement-mediated thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). Twenty-three patients had therapy refractory HLH (13 primary, 4 EVB-HLH, 6 HLH without known trigger). Sixteen (69.6%) met high-risk TMA criteria. Renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy, severe hypertension, serositis, and gastrointestinal bleeding were documented only in patients with HLH who had concomitant complement-mediated TMA. Patients with HLH and without TMA required ventilator support mainly due to CNS symptoms, while those with HLH and TMA had respiratory failure predominantly associated with pulmonary hypertension, a known presentation of pulmonary TMA. Ten patients received eculizumab for complement-mediated TMA management while being treated for HLH. All patients who received the complement blocker eculizumab in addition to the interferon gamma blocker emapalumab had complete resolution of their TMA and survived. Our observations suggest co-activation of both interferon and complement pathways as a potential culprit in the evolution of thrombotic microangiopathy in patients with inflammatory disorders like refractory HLH and may offer novel therapeutic approaches for these critically ill patients. TMA should be considered in children with HLH and multi-organ failure, as an early institution of a brief course of complement blocking therapy in addition to HLH-targeted therapy may improve clinical outcomes in these patients.

Case report: emapalumab treatment for a pediatric Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (EBV-HLH) patient with cytokine storm enabling allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation.

Background: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening syndrome characterized by excessive immune activation and inflammatory response. Conventional immunotherapy and molecular targeted drugs demonstrate varying efficacy. Cytokine storm, the primary pathogenic mechanism of HLH, is driven by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-2, IL-18, etc., in which IFN-γ plays a critical role in the development of the disease. Emapalumab, a potent IFN-γ inhibitor, effectively reduces the occurrence of cytokine storms in refractory and relapsed HLH. Case Description: A pediatric patient, 5 years old, female, with relapsed and refractory Epstein-Barr virus-associated HLH (EBV-HLH) showed no response to conventional chemotherapy or molecular-targeted drug treatment. However, after treatment with emapalumab, the patient achieved hematological remission. Subsequently, the patient underwent allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) and remains without HLH to date. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report using emapalumab to control EBV-HLH before HCT in mainland China. This case highlights the potential efficacy of emapalumab for treating relapsed and refractory EBV-HLH and providing a stable physical status for HCT. Further research is necessary to confirm the efficacy and safety of emapalumab in this setting.

Successful Treatment of Severe Steroid-Resistant Engraftment Syndrome Following Haploidentical Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Acute Myeloid Leukemia with Emapalumab: A Case Report.

Engraftment syndrome (ES) is an early complication of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) characterized by fever and additional clinical manifestations including rash, diarrhea, lung infiltrates, weight gain, and neurological symptoms. Steroid-resistant ES following HSCT significantly affects the efficacy of transplantation and may even result in patient mortality. As ES essentially represents a cytokine storm induced by engrafted donor cells with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) playing a central role, we hypothesized that emapalumab (an anti-IFN-γ monoclonal antibody) may be an effective approach to treat steroid-resistant ES. Here, we present a case report of a 14-year-old female patient who received a second haploidentical HSCT due to a relapse of acute myeloid leukemia. Nine days after the transplantation, the patient developed a fever and exhibited a poor response to antimicrobials (ceftazidime/avibactam). A few days later, the patient presented with a new-onset rash, weight gain, and impaired liver function, leading to a diagnosis of ES. Initial immunosuppressive (tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil) treatment failed to control the disease. On day 16 post-transplantation, the patient received two infusions of 50 mg of emapalumab. Following the initiation of emapalumab treatment, the patient's fever returned to normal and ES was effectively controlled. This case report demonstrated that emapalumab had a possible efficacy for steroid-resistant ES and provided a novel therapeutic strategy to treat this clinical complication.

Population Pharmacokinetics of the Anti-Interferon-Gamma Monoclonal Antibody Emapalumab: An Updated Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Emapalumab is a fully human monoclonal antibody that targets free and receptor-bound interferon-gamma (IFNγ), neutralizing its biological activity. IFNγ levels differ by orders of magnitude between patients with primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS; a form of secondary HLH) in systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA). Therefore, this study aimed to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for emapalumab across a patient population with a wide range of total (free and emapalumab-bound) IFNγ levels using observations from patients with primary HLH or MAS in sJIA in clinical trials. METHODS: Pharmacokinetic data were pooled (n = 58; 2709 observations) from studies enrolling patients administered emapalumab for primary HLH or MAS in sJIA. Patients with primary HLH were administered emapalumab 1 mg/kg (potentially increasing to 3, 6, and up to 10 mg/kg based on clinical response) every 3 days. Patients with MAS in sJIA were administered emapalumab 6 mg/kg, followed by 3 mg/kg every 3 days until day 15 and twice weekly until day 28. An earlier population PK model was re-parameterized using this data. RESULTS: The final model for emapalumab comprised a 2-compartment model with first-order elimination. Emapalumab clearance remains constant when the total IFNγ concentration (free and emapalumab-bound) is < ~ 10,000 pg/ml but increases proportionally to total IFNγ concentration above this threshold. Emapalumab clearance was estimated to be 0.00218, 0.00308, 0.00623 and 0.01718 l/h at total serum IFNγ concentrations of 103, 104, 105 and 106 pg/ml, respectively, with corresponding terminal half-lives of 19.2, 13.8, 7.18 and 3.12 days for a 1-year-old patient weighing 10 kg with primary HLH. The median terminal half-life for emapalumab in patients with MAS in sJIA was estimated to be 24.0 (range, 6.13-32.4) days, which is similar to observations in healthy volunteers. CONCLUSIONS: Emapalumab pharmacokinetics in patients with primary HLH and MAS in sJIA were described by a two-compartment model with fixed allometric exponents and an age-related effect. Differences in total IFNγ levels between patients with primary HLH and MAS may affect emapalumab pharmacokinetics, suggesting that each indication may require different dosing to rapidly control hyperinflammation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov identifiers: NCT01818492, NCT03311854 and NCT02069899.

Patients with a rare condition called hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) produce excessive amounts of a molecule called interferon-gamma. Excessive interferon-gamma causes extreme (or hyper) inflammation, which can be fatal. A drug called emapalumab can be used to block the action of interferon-gamma. However, we need to understand how the concentration of emapalumab in the blood changes over time to ensure that the correct dose is administered when attempting to control interferon-gamma-driven hyperinflammation in patients with HLH. Because HLH is a rare condition, data from a small number of patients were used to create a mathematical model that predicts emapalumab concentrations in the blood at various times after it is administered. Importantly, the amount of interferon-gamma observed in patients with different types of HLH is highly variable, which can alter how quickly emapalumab is removed from the blood. The higher interferon-gamma levels go above a certain threshold, the faster emapalumab is removed. In particular, interferon-gamma levels generally only exceed this threshold in patients with a familial or genetic form of HLH (primary HLH). Interferon-gamma levels in patients with a type of HLH called macrophage activation syndrome, which can occur in patients with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA), do not usually cross the threshold associated with faster removal of emapalumab. This means that higher dosing may be required for patients with primary HLH compared with patients who have macrophage activation syndrome in sJIA to expedite control of hyperinflammation because of differences in the rate at which emapalumab is removed from the blood.

Case Report: Successful avoidance of etoposide for primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome using emapalumab.

We describe the case of an infant who presented with simple rhinovirus/enterovirus bronchiolitis whose condition worsened with rapid progression to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). The patient was presumed to have either primary or secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), and treatment was initiated using dexamethasone, anakinra, and intravenous immunoglobulin to modulate the immune system. Due to the organ dysfunction, the use of etoposide was avoided and instead, emapalumab, an interferon gamma antagonist, was administered at a dose of 6 mg/kg. The patient's organ failure improved, and the levels of inflammatory markers decreased. The flow cytometry analysis revealed that cytotoxic cells lacked perforin expression, and subsequent genetic analysis confirmed homozygous pathogenic mutations in the perforin gene. This case highlights the potential avoidance of etoposide in cases of primary HLH, the possible benefit of an elevated initial dose of emapalumab, and the contribution offered by a multi-specialty team approach to complex diagnosis.

Successful use of emapalumab in refractory hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a child with Chédiak-Higashi syndrome: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a life-threatening disease heralded by fever, cytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly, and multisystem organ failure. Its association with genetic mutations, infections, autoimmune disorders, and malignancies is widely reported. CASE PRESENTATION: A 3-year-old male Arab Saudi patient with insignificant past medical history and parental consanguinity presented with abdominal distension of moderate severity and persistent fever despite receiving antibiotics. This was accompanied by hepatosplenomegaly and silvery hair. The clinical and biochemical profiles were suggestive of Chédiak-Higashi syndrome with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The patient received the hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis-2004 chemotherapy protocol and had multiple hospital admissions mainly due to infections and febrile neutropenia. After achieving the initial remission, the patient's disease reactivated and did not respond to reinduction with the hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis-2004 protocol. Due to the disease reactivation and intolerance of conventional therapy, the patient commenced emapalumab. The patient was successfully salvaged and underwent an uneventful hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: Novel agents such as emapalumab can be helpful for the management of refractory, recurrent, or progressive disease, while avoiding the toxicities of conventional therapy. Due to a paucity of available data on emapalumab, additional data are needed to establish its role in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis treatment.

Case Report: Refractory macrophage activation syndrome requiring high-dose anakinra, emapalumab, and etoposide therapy in early-onset systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis associated with adenoviremia.

Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a life-threatening condition characterized by the excessive stimulation of macrophages and T lymphocytes, provoked by infections, malignancy, and autoimmune or autoinflammatory conditions such as systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA). Clinical signs of sJIA may include high-spiking, quotidian fevers, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, and a salmon-colored migratory, evanescent rash. By contrast, MAS is characterized by unremitting fevers and diffuse, fixed, maculopapular rashes. In addition to hepatosplenomegaly and lymphadenopathy, patients with MAS may also have clinical signs of coagulopathy, as well as cardiac, lung, renal, and central nervous system dysfunction. The empiric treatment for MAS is initially high-dose IV corticosteroids, but usually requires addition of immunomodulators such as tacrolimus or a biologic such as Anakinra to control. The addition of immunotherapies for MAS has improved patient outcomes. We present a 2-year-old male patient with a history of early-onset sJIA, who presented with MAS refractory to corticosteroids and anakinra triggered by adenoviremia that required addition of emapalumab to control. We believe this is the first reported case of a combination of immunosuppressive therapy of emapalumab, etoposide, anakinra, tacrolimus, and corticosteroids used in the successful treatment of infection-induced MAS in early-onset sJIA. Given the lack of treatment guidelines and approved therapies for MAS, alternative strategies should be considered for patients with an intractable course.

Cellular and transcriptional impacts of Janus kinase and/or IFN-gamma inhibition in a mouse model of primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

Background: Primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (pHLH) is an inherited inflammatory syndrome driven by the exuberant activation of interferon-gamma (IFNg)-producing CD8 T cells. Towards this end, ruxolitinib treatment or IFNg neutralization (aIFNg) lessens immunopathology in a model of pHLH in which perforin-deficient mice (Prf1-/-) are infected with Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). However, neither agent completely eradicates inflammation. Two studies combining ruxolitinib with aIFNg report conflicting results with one demonstrating improvement and the other worsening of disease manifestations. As these studies used differing doses of drugs and varying LCMV strains, it remained unclear whether combination therapy is safe and effective. Methods: We previously showed that a ruxolitinib dose of 90 mg/kg lessens inflammation in Prf1-/- mice infected with LCMV-Armstrong. To determine whether this dose controls inflammation induced by a different LCMV strain, we administered ruxolitinib at 90mg/kg to Prf1-/- mice infected with LCMV-WE. To elucidate the impacts of single agent versus combination therapy, Prf1-/- animals were infected with LCMV, treated or not with ruxolitinib, aIFNg or both agents, and analyzed for disease features and the transcriptional impacts of therapy within purified CD8 T cells. Results: Ruxolitinib is well-tolerated and controls disease regardless of the viral strain used. aIFNg, administered alone or with ruxolitinib, is most effective at reversing anemia and reducing serum IFNg levels. In contrast, ruxolitinib appears better than aIFNg, and equally or more effective than combination therapy, at lessening immune cell expansion and cytokine production. Each treatment targets distinct gene expression pathways with aIFNg downregulating IFNg, IFNa, and IL-6-STAT3 pathways, and ruxolitinib downregulating IL-6-STAT3, glycolysis, and reactive oxygen species pathways. Unexpectedly, combination therapy is associated with upregulation of genes driving cell survival and proliferation. Conclusions: Ruxolitinib is tolerated and curtails inflammation regardless of the inciting viral strain and whether it is given alone or in combination with aIFNg. When administered at the doses used in this study, the combination of ruxolitinb and aIFNg appears no better than treatment with either drug alone in lessening inflammation. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the optimal doses, schedules, and combinations of these agents for the treatment of patients with pHLH.

Case report: Emapalumab for active disease control prior to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in refractory systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis complicated by macrophage activation syndrome.

Introduction: Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), a secondary form of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, is a serious life-threatening complication associated with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA). MAS is characterized by fever, hepatosplenomegaly, liver dysfunction, cytopenias, coagulation abnormalities, and hyperferritinemia and may progress to multiple organ failure and death. Overproduction of interferon-gamma is a major driver of hyperinflammation in murine models of MAS and primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. A subset of patients with sJIA may develop progressive interstitial lung disease, which is often difficult to manage. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) can potentially be a curative immunomodulatory strategy for patients with sJIA refractory to conventional therapy and/or complicated by MAS. The use of emapalumab (anti-interferon gamma antibody) for the active control of MAS in refractory cases of sJIA and associated lung disease has not been reported. Herein we report a patient with refractory sJIA complicated by recurrent MAS and lung disease that was managed with emapalumab and ultimately followed by an allo-HSCT, which resulted in permanent correction of the underlying immune dysregulation and improvement of lung disease. Case Report: We present a 4-year-old girl with sJIA complicated by recurrent MAS and progressive interstitial lung disease. She developed a progressively worsening disease that was refractory to glucocorticoids, anakinra, methotrexate, tocilizumab, and canakinumab. She had a chronic elevation of serum inflammatory markers, notably soluble interleukin-18, and CXC chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9). Emapalumab, initiated at 6 mg/kg (1 dose) and continued at 3 mg/kg twice weekly for a total of 4 weeks, resulted in MAS remission along with normalization of inflammatory markers. The patient received a matched sibling donor allo-HSCT after a reduced-intensity conditioning regimen with fludarabine/melphalan/thiotepa and alemtuzumab, along with tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil for graft-vs.-host disease prophylaxis. At 20 months following her transplant, she has maintained a full donor engraftment with complete donor-derived immune reconstitution. She had complete resolution of sJIA symptoms including marked improvement in her lung disease along with normalization of serum interleukin-18 and CXCL9 levels. Conclusion: The use of emapalumab followed by allo-HSCT could help achieve a complete response in refractory cases of sJIA complicated by MAS who have failed standard treatment.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistocytosis in trisomy 21: successful treatment with interferon inhibition.

BACKGROUND: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening condition of immune dysregulation primarily driven by the cytokine interferon gamma. It can be either a genetic or acquired disorder associated with infection, malignancy, and rheumatologic disorders. Trisomy 21 can express a wide range of phenotypes which include immune dysregulation and shares inherent pathophysiology with a group of disorders termed interferonopathies. Knowledge of this overlap in seemingly unrelated conditions could provide a basis for future research, and most importantly, alternative therapeutic interventions in acute life threatening clinical scenarios. Herein, we describe two patients with trisomy 21 presenting with HLH that was refractory to conventional treatment. Both patients were successfully managed with novel interventions targeting the interferon pathway. CASE PRESENTATION: We describe a 17-month-old male and 15-month-old female with trisomy 21 presenting with a myriad of signs and symptoms including fever, rash, cytopenias, and hyperferritinemia, both ultimately diagnosed with HLH. Each had relapsing, refractory HLH over time requiring several admissions to the hospital receiving conventional high dose corticosteroids and interleukin-1 inhibition therapy. Successful steroid-free remission was achieved after targeting interferon inhibition with emapalumab induction followed by long-term maintenance on baricitinib. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, these are the first reported cases of relapsed, refractory HLH in patients with trisomy 21 successfully treated with emapalumab and transitioned to a steroid-sparing regimen with oral baricitinib for maintenance therapy. Trisomy 21 autoimmunity and HLH are both thought to be driven by interferon gamma. Targeting therapy toward interferon signaling in both HLH and autoimmunity in trisomy 21 may have potential therapeutic benefits. Further investigation is needed to determine if trisomy 21 may predispose to the development of HLH given this common pathway.

Can emapalumab be life saving for refractory, recurrent, and progressive cytokine storm caused by COVID-19, which is resistant to anakinra, tocilizumab, and Janus kinase inhibitors.

Although many potent drugs have been used for cytokine storm, mortality is high for patients with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), which is followed up in the intensive care unit. Interferons (IFNs) are the major cytokines of the antiviral defense system released from many cell types. However, IFN-γ plays a key role in both primary and secondary cytokine storms. If the cytokine storm is not treated urgently, it will be fatal; therefore, it should be treated immediately. Anakinra, an interleukin-1 (IL-1) antagonist, tocilizumab, an IL-6 antagonist, and Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors are successfully used in cytokine storm caused by COVID-19. However, sometimes, despite these treatments, the patient's clinical course does not improve. Emapalumab (Eb) is the human immunoglobulin G1 monoclonal antibody and is a potent and noncompetitive antagonist of IFN-γ. Eb can be life saving for cytokine storm caused by COVID-19, which is resistant to anakinra, tocilizumab, and JAK inhibitors.

Emapalumab for adult and pediatric patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

INTRODUCTION: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare life-threatening hyperinflammatory syndrome. Standard treatment is based on immunosuppressive, cytotoxic drugs and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in primary HLH. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) plays a key pathogenic role. Emapalumab, a monoclonal antibody directed against IFN-γ, is the first target therapy approved for primary HLH with refractory, recurrent or progressive disease or intolerance to conventional therapy. AREAS COVERED: We reviewed the pharmacological characteristics, safety, efficacy and clinical uses of emapalumab. We summarized the results of current standard treatment based on chemo-immunosuppressive protocols and outlined the alternative options available. EXPERT OPINION: Emapalumab is an effective treatment for HLH with a good safety profile. Its efficacy was demonstrated in a phase II/III study on primary HLH pediatric patients with refractory, relapsing HLH or intolerance to first-line treatment. The use of emapalumab allowed most patients to proceed to HSCT, with a high estimated probability of survival 12 months after transplantation. The outcomes in patients who underwent transplantation compare favorably with those reported previously with either myeloablative or reduced-intensity conditioning regimens. The potential role of emapalumab in the treatment of secondary HLH and as a prevention of graft failure after HSCT deserves to be further assessed.

Clinical Management of Relapsed/Refractory Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis in Adult Patients: A Review of Current Strategies and Emerging Therapies.

INTRODUCTION: Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a severe disorder with high mortality. The aim of this review is to update clinical management of relapsed/refractory HLH in adults, with a focus on current and new therapies. METHODS: We searched relevant articles in Embase and PUBMED with the MESH term "hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis; refractory; relapsing; adult." RESULTS: One hundred eight papers were found; of these, 22 were retained for this review. The treatment of HLH in adult is based on the HLH-94 regimen. The response rate is lower than in pediatric patients, and 20-30% are refractory to this therapy. DEP regimen and allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are associated with complete response and partial response in 27% and 49.2%, respectively. However, many patients fail to achieve a stable condition before HSCT, and mortality is higher in them. New drugs have been developed, such as emapalumab, ruxolitinib, and alemtuzumab, and they may be used as bridges to the curative HSCT. They are relatively well tolerated and have few or mild side effects. With these agents, the rate of partial response ranges from 14.2% to 100%, while the rate of complete response is highly variable according to study and medication used. The number of patients who achieved HSCT ranged from 44.8% to 77%, with a survival rate of 55.9% to 100%. However, the populations in these studies are mainly composed of mixed-age patients (pediatric and adult patients), and studies including only adult patients are scarce. CONCLUSION: Relapsed or refractory HLH in adult patients is associated with poor outcome, and consolidation with HSCT may be required in some cases. Mortality related to HSCT is mainly due to active HLH disease before HSCT and post HSCT complications. New drugs, such as empalumab, ruxolitinib, and alemtuzumab are interesting since these agents may be used as bridges to HSCT with increases in the numbers of patients proceeding to HSCT and survival rate.

The Use of Biologic Modifiers as a Bridge to Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation in Primary Immune Regulatory Disorders.

Recently, primary immune regulatory disorders have been described as a subset of inborn errors of immunity that are dominated by immune mediated pathology. As the pathophysiology of disease is elucidated, use of biologic modifiers have been increasingly used successfully to treat disease mediated clinical manifestations. Hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) has also provided definitive therapy in several PIRDs. Although biologic modifiers have been largely successful at treating disease related manifestations, data are lacking regarding long term efficacy, safety, and their use as a bridge to HCT. This review highlights biologic modifiers in the treatment of several PIRDs and there use as a therapeutic bridge to HCT.

Chronic Graft-Versus-Host-Disease-Related Polymyositis: a 17-Months-Old Child with a Rare and Late Complication of Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Chronic graft versus host disease (cGVHD) occurs in 20-30% of paediatric patients receiving haemopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Neuromuscular disorders such as polymyositis are considered a rare and distinctive but non-diagnostic manifestation of cGVHD and, in the absence of other characteristic signs and symptoms, biopsy is highly recommended to exclude other causes. CASE REPORT: We report a case of a 17-months-old child affected by hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis who underwent a matched unrelated donor haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). She developed severe cGVHD-related polymyositis that was successfully treated with high-dose steroid therapy, rituximab and sirolimus. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first case of cGVHD-related-polymyositis described in a pediatric patient which was successfully treated with rituximab.