Public perception on human exposure risk: A case study on endocrine disrupting compounds in the environment.

Humans are exposed to environmental risks owing to the broad usage of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). However, the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics, as well as the variation in risk processing, have not been thoroughly examined. The objective was to understand the public's perception of the risk associated with human exposure to environmental EDCs and identify any variations in risk perception. In this pioneering study conducted within the distinctive social and cultural context of Malaysia, a developing nation, a quantitative analysis approach was employed to assess the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics among the public while developing a risk perception model. Data gathered from surveys and questionnaires were analyzed to gather information on the public's perception of environmental and health issues pertaining to pesticides, hormones, plastics, medicines, and cosmetics. The analysis revealed that the majority of the public assessed the level of human exposure to environmental risks based on experiential processing, which was influenced by cognitive and affective variables. Interestingly, a higher proportion of individuals in the community had a low risk perception of environmental EDCs, surpassing the overall risk perception by 19.3%. Furthermore, the public showed significant awareness of environmental and health issues related to pesticides, hormones, and plastics but had a lesser inclination to acknowledge the vulnerability of humans to risks associated with medicines and cosmetics. These findings suggest that the public is likely to be exposed to environmental EDCs based on their current perceived risks, and that sociopsychological factors play a significant role in shaping perceptions and judgments. This understanding can inform the development of targeted risk management strategies and interventions to mitigate the potential harm caused by environmental EDCs.

Bisphenol-A in Drinking Water Accelerates Mammary Cancerogenesis and Favors an Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment in BALB-neuT Mice.

Bisphenol-A (BPA), a synthetic compound ubiquitously present in the environment, can act as an endocrine disruptor by binding to both canonical and non-canonical estrogen receptors (ERs). Exposure to BPA has been linked to various cancers, in particular, those arising in hormone-targeted tissues such as the breast. In this study, we evaluated the effect of BPA intake through drinking water on ErbB2/neu-driven cancerogenesis in BALB-neuT mice, transgenic for a mutated ErbB2/neu receptor gene, which reproducibly develop carcinomas in all mammary glands. In this model, BPA accelerated mammary cancerogenesis with an increase in the number of tumors per mouse and a concurrent decrease in tumor-free and overall survival. As assessed by immunohistochemistry, BALB-neuT tumors were ER-negative but expressed high levels of the alternative estrogen receptor GPR30, regardless of BPA exposure. On the other hand, BPA exposure resulted in a marked upregulation of progesterone receptors in preinvasive tumors and of Ki67, CD31, and phosphorylated Akt in invasive tumors. Moreover, based on several infiltration markers of immune cells, BPA favored an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Finally, in vitro cell survival studies performed on a cell line established from a BALB-neuT breast carcinoma confirmed that BPA's impact on cancer progression can be particularly relevant after chronic, low-dose exposure.

Pharmaceuticals, hormones, plasticizers, and pesticides in drinking water.

Humans are exposed to endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in tap water via drinking water. Currently, most of the analytical methods used to assess a long list of EDCs in drinking water have been made available only for a single group of EDCs and their metabolites, in contrast with other environmental matrices (e.g., surface water, sediments, and biota) for which more robust methods have been developed that allow detection of multiple groups. This study reveals an analytical method of one-step solid phase extraction, incorporated together with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the quantification of multiclass EDCs (i.e., pharmaceuticals, hormones, plasticizers, and pesticides) in drinking water. Fifteen multiclass EDCs significantly varied in amount between field samples (p < 0.05), with a maximum concentration of 17.63 ng/L observed. Daily exposure via drinking water is unlikely to pose a health risk (risk quotient < 1). This method serves as an analytical protocol for tracing multiclass EDC contamination in tap water as part of a multibarrier approach to ensure safe drinking water for good health and well-being. It represents a simpler one-step alternative tool for drinking water analysis, thereby avoiding the time-consuming and expensive multi-extraction steps that are generally needed for analyzing multiclass EDCs.

Estrogenicity of chemical mixtures revealed by a panel of bioassays.

Estrogenic compounds are widely released to surface waters and may cause adverse effects to sensitive aquatic species. Three hormones, estrone, 17ß-estradiol and 17α-ethinylestradiol, are of particular concern as they are bioactive at very low concentrations. Current analytical methods are not all sensitive enough for monitoring these substances in water and do not cover mixture effects. Bioassays could complement chemical analysis since they detect the overall effect of complex mixtures. Here, four chemical mixtures and two hormone mixtures were prepared and tested as reference materials together with two environmental water samples by eight laboratories employing nine in vitro and in vivo bioassays covering different steps involved in the estrogenic response. The reference materials included priority substances under the European Water Framework Directive, hormones and other emerging pollutants. Each substance in the mixture was present at its proposed safety limit concentration (EQS) in the European legislation. The in vitro bioassays detected the estrogenic effect of chemical mixtures even when 17ß-estradiol was not present but differences in responsiveness were observed. LiBERA was the most responsive, followed by LYES. The additive effect of the hormones was captured by ERα-CALUX, MELN, LYES and LiBERA. Particularly, all in vitro bioassays detected the estrogenic effects in environmental water samples (EEQ values in the range of 0.75-304 × EQS), although the concentrations of hormones were below the limit of quantification in analytical measurements. The present study confirms the applicability of reference materials for estrogenic effects' detection through bioassays and indicates possible methodological drawbacks of some of them that may lead to false negative/positive outcomes. The observed difference in responsiveness among bioassays - based on mixture composition - is probably due to biological differences between them, suggesting that panels of bioassays with different characteristics should be applied according to specific environmental pollution conditions.

Co-exposures to trace elements and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) impacts North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) baculum.

Environmental loadings of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and trace elements are increasing in areas with marked oil and gas extraction, such as in the Athabasca oil sands region, Alberta, Canada. Some of these chemicals are recognized as potent endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). The impacts of co-exposure to PACs and metals on free-ranging wildlife is of considerable concern. River otters (Lontra canadensis) are sentinel species of aquatic ecosystem health. The baculum (penile bone) is an important part of the reproductive system in otters that ensures successful copulation. Although baculum health is critical to male reproductive success and is sensitive to exposure to EDCs, there is no information available regarding the impact of PAC and metal exposures on measures of baculum health. River otter baculum and livers were dissected from carcasses obtained from the fur trade. Trace element and PAC analyses were carried out in liver with matching baculums subjected to dimensional analysis, bone mineral density (BMD) and mechanical loading testing. Trace elements and select PACs exhibited both protective and deleterious effects on baculum bone health metrics. Alkylated four ring PACs were negatively associated with baculum bone material properties (ex: C4-Chrysene and C4-pyrene). The same compounds have been shown to exhibit strong anti-androgenic activities. Few comparable studies exist related to contamination and adverse effects of PACs in wild terrestrial mammals. Baculum health metrics may be an important tool to include in biomonitoring studies as to date, there are limited means to assess male reproductive performance in wildlife biomonitoring programs.

Bioconcentration and depuration of (14)C-labeled 17α-ethinyl estradiol and 4-nonylphenol in individual organs of the marine bivalve Mytilus edulis L. .

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), including 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), enter coastal environments primarily in effluents of wastewater treatment facilities and have become ubiquitous in marine surface waters, sediments, and biota. Although EE2 and 4-NP have been detected in marine shellfish, the kinetics of bioconcentration and their tissue distribution have not been thoroughly investigated. The authors performed bioconcentration and depuration experiments in the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, with 3.37 nM EE2 (0.999 µg/L) and 454 nM 4-NP (100.138 µg/L). Mussels and seawater were sampled throughout a 38-d exposure and a 35-d depuration period, and 6 tissues were individually assayed. Uptake of EE2 and 4-NP was curvilinear throughout exposure and followed a similar uptake pattern: digestive gland > gill ≥ remaining viscera > gonad > adductor > plasma. Depuration varied, however, with half-lives ranging from 2.7 d (plasma) to 92 d (gill) for EE2 and 15 d (plasma) to 57 d (gill) for 4-NP. An innovative modeling approach, with 3 coupled mathematical models, was developed to differentiate the unique roles of the gill and plasma in distributing the EDCs to internal tissues. Plasma appears pivotal in regulating EDC uptake and depuration within the whole mussel.

The role and impact of estrogens and xenoestrogen on the development of cervical cancer.

Throughout an individual's lifetime, the human body is exposed to many different chemical compounds, including xenoestrogens (XEs) that can be found in the environment, food, air, cosmetics and other substances, which have a positive or negative impact on their health and lifestyle. Whereas high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) is necessary but not sufficient for full malignant cervical cell transformation, other compounds such as estrogens and XEs may be risk factors for cervical cancer (CC) development. The causes and effects of some diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, metabolic or immune system disorders are partly due to signaling pathways in response to estrogens. XEs are a vast group of natural and synthetic compounds, behaving like estrogens, that have been studied over the recent years and which may interact with estrogen receptors. The major problem with XEs is the difficulty in studying the mechanism of such complex substances as well as investigating the influences of some of the compounds (dose-dependent) over time. The impact of XEs on CC is variable, with no direct comparison between in vitro studies and in vivo XEs action.

Occurrence and fate of endocrine disrupting compounds in wastewater treatment plants in Israel and the Palestinian West Bank.

Israel and its Palestinian neighbors constitute a unique venue for evaluating the treatment efficiency and potential environmental risks of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), because of their physical proximity yet contrasting societal dynamics. Israel primarily relies on advanced tertiary sewage treatment and recycles over 85% of its treated wastewater, while in the Palestinian Authority (PA), there is only secondary treatment levels at WWTPs and reuse is minimal (<1%). To evaluate the extent of EDC occurrence and treatment efficiency, we conducted four sampling campaigns over two consecutive years, and measured the concentrations of selected EDCs in raw wastewater (WW), treated WW and sludge in six WWTPs in Israel, as well as in two Palestinian plants. Low concentrations of bisphenol A, octylphenol and triclosan measured in the raw WW in the Palestinian WWTPs reflected the relatively modest industrial activity and consumption habits as compared to the westernized consumer patterns in Israel. On the other hand, hormone concentrations in raw WW were higher in the Palestinian WWTPs than those in the Israeli WWTPs, presumably because of a dilution effect associated with a higher water per capita consumption among Israelis. Despite these differences in raw WW concentrations, the removal efficiency in all advanced WWTPs was relatively high when compared to averages reported internationally.

Sources and transport of contaminants of emerging concern: A two-year study of occurrence and spatiotemporal variation in a mixed land use watershed.

The occurrence and spatiotemporal variation of 26 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) were evaluated in 68 water samples in 2011-2012 in the Zumbro River watershed, Minnesota, U.S.A. Samples were collected across a range of seasonal/hydrological conditions from four stream sites that varied in associated land use and presence of an upstream wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Selected CECs included human/veterinary pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides, phytoestrogens, and commercial/industrial compounds. Detection frequencies and concentrations varied, with atrazine, metolachlor, acetaminophen, caffeine, DEET, and trimethoprim detected in more than 70% of samples, acetochlor, mecoprop, carbamazepine, and daidzein detected in 30%-50% of samples, and 4-nonylphenol, cotinine, sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin, tylosin, and carbaryl detected in 10%-30% of samples. The remaining target CECs were not detected in water samples. Three land use-associated trends were observed for the detected CECs. Carbamazepine, 4-nonylphenol, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, tylosin, and carbaryl profiles were WWTP-dominated, as demonstrated by more consistent loading and significantly greater concentrations downstream of the WWTP and during low-flow seasons. In contrast, acetaminophen, trimethoprim, DEET, caffeine, cotinine, and mecoprop patterns demonstrated both seasonally-variable non-WWTP-associated and continual WWTP-associated influences. Surface water studies of CECs often target areas near WWTPs. This study suggests that several CECs often characterized as effluent-associated have additional important sources such as septic systems or land-applied biosolids. Finally, agricultural herbicide (atrazine, acetochlor, and metolachlor) profiles were strongly influenced by agricultural land use and seasonal application-runoff, evident by significantly greater concentrations and loadings at upstream sites and in early summer when application and precipitation rates are greatest. Our results indicate that CEC monitoring studies should consider a range of land uses, seasonality, and transport pathways in relation to concentrations and loadings. This knowledge can augment CEC monitoring programs to result in more accurate source, occurrence, and ecological risk characterizations, more precisely targeted mitigation initiatives, and ultimately, enhanced environmental decision-making.

Biotransformation of Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds in Groundwater: Bisphenol A, Nonylphenol, Ethynylestradiol and Triclosan by a Laccase Cocktail from Pycnoporus sanguineus CS43.

The biodegradation of organic compounds present in water at trace concentration has become a critical environmental problem. In particular, enzymatic oxidation by fungal laccases offers a promising alternative for efficient and sustainable removal of organic pollutants in water. In this work, the biocatalytic ability of laccases from the Pycnoporus sanguineus CS43 fungus was evaluated. A filtered culture supernatant (laccase cocktail) evidenced an enhanced biotransformation capability to remove common endocrine-disruptor compounds (EDCs), such as bisphenol A, 4-nonylphenol, 17-α-ethynylestradiol and triclosan. A biodegradation of around 89-100 % was achieved for all EDCs using synthetic samples (10 mg L-1) and after the enzymatic treatment with 100 U L-1 (50.3 U mg -1). The biodegradation rates obtained were fitted to a first order reaction. Furthermore, enzymatic biocatalytic activity was also evaluated in groundwater samples coming from northwestern Mexico, reaching biotransformation percentages between 55 and 93 % for all tested compounds. As far as we know this is the first study on real groundwater samples in which the enzymatic degradation of target EDCs by a laccase cocktail from any strain of Pycnoporus sanguineus was evaluated. In comparison with purified laccases, the use of cocktail offers operational advantages since additional purification steps can be avoided.

Occurrence, fate and environmental risk assessment of endocrine disrupting compounds at the wastewater treatment works in Pietermaritzburg (South Africa).

Steroid hormone Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) (natural estrogens (17-ß-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), estriol (E3), synthetic estrogen (17-α-ethinylestradiol (EE2)), natural androgen (testosterone) (tes) and natural progestogen (progesterone) (pro)) at an activated sludge wastewater works (WWW), were quantitated using Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The steroid hormone profile in the adjacent surface water was also determined. Pro was the most abundant (41%, 408 ng/L) in the influent, followed by tes (35%, 343 ng/L) and E2 (12%, 119 ng/L). E1 was the most abundant (35%, 23 ng/L) in effluent, followed by E2 (30%, 20 ng/L) and tes (17%, 11 ng/L). Chemical removal efficiencies of the steroid hormones by the WWW averaged 92%. High removal efficiency was observed for pro (98% ± 2) and tes (96% ± 1), compared to natural (72-100%) and synthetic estrogen (90% ± 3), with biodegradation being the major removal route for pro and tes. The lowest removal for E2 is in spring (65%), and maximum removal is in winter (95%). Natural (E2, E1) and synthetic estrogen (EE2) were major contributors to influent (E2 = 69%) and effluent (E2 = 73%) estrogenic potency. The estrogenic potency removal averaged 85% (range: 73-100). Risk assessment of the steroid hormones present in wastewater effluent, and surface water, indicated that EE2 and E2 pose the highest risk to human health and fish. EE2 was found to be much more resistant to biodegradation, compared to E2, in surface water. Estrone, as the breakdown product of E2 and EE2 in wastewater, appears to be suitable as an indicator of EDCs. The study suggests that a battery of tests: quantitative chemical assay, bioassay for estrogenic activity and risk assessment methods, collectively, are preferred in order to make meaningful, accurate conclusions regarding potential adverse effects of EDCs present in treated wastewater effluent or surface water, to the aquatic environment, human health, and wildlife systems.

Serum estrogenicity and biological responses in African catfish raised in wastewater ponds in Ghana.

Reuse of wastewater for aquaculture improves the efficient use of water and promotes sustainability but the potential effects of endocrine disrupting compounds including estrogens in wastewater are an emerging challenge that needs to be addressed. We examined the biological effects of wastewater-borne estrogens on African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) raised in a wastewater stabilization pond (WSP) of a functioning municipal wastewater treatment plant, a wastewater polishing pond (WWP) of a dysfunctional treatment plant, and a reference pond (RP) unimpacted by wastewater, located in Ghana. Measurements of estrogen concentrations in pond water by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry showed that mean 17 ß-estradiol concentrations were higher in the wastewater ponds (WWP, 6.6 ng/L±2.7 ng/L; WSP, 4.9 ng/L±1.0) than the reference (RP, 3.4±1.1 ng/L). Estrone concentrations were found to be highest in the WSP (7.8 ng/L±1.7) and lowest in the WWP (2.2 ng/L±2.4) with the RP intermediate (4.7±5.0). Fish serum estrogenicity assayed by E-SCREEN was significantly higher in female vs. male catfish in the RP and WSP but not in the WWP (p≤0.05). Histological examination of liver and gonad tissue showed no apparent signs of intersex or pathology in any ponds. The similarities in various measures of body indices between fish of this study and African catfish from freshwater systems suggest that aquaculture may be a suitable reuse option for treated municipal wastewater.