Small-Molecule-Based Fluorescent Sensors for Selective Detection of Reactive Oxygen Species in Biological Systems.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) encompass a collection of intricately linked chemical entities characterized by individually distinct physicochemical properties and biological reactivities. Although excessive ROS generation is well known to underpin disease development, it has become increasingly evident that ROS also play central roles in redox regulation and normal physiology. A major challenge in uncovering the relevant biological mechanisms and deconvoluting the apparently paradoxical roles of distinct ROS in human health and disease lies in the selective and sensitive detection of these transient species in the complex biological milieu. Small-molecule-based fluorescent sensors enable molecular imaging of ROS with great spatial and temporal resolution and have thus been appreciated as excellent tools for aiding discoveries in modern redox biology. We review a selection of state-of-the-art sensors with demonstrated utility in biological systems. By providing a systematic overview based on underlying chemical sensing mechanisms, we wish to highlight the strengths and weaknesses in prior sensor works and propose some guiding principles for the development of future probes.

iATPSnFR2: A high-dynamic-range fluorescent sensor for monitoring intracellular ATP.

We developed a significantly improved genetically encoded quantitative adenosine triphosphate (ATP) sensor to provide real-time dynamics of ATP levels in subcellular compartments. iATPSnFR2 is a variant of iATPSnFR1, a previously developed sensor that has circularly permuted superfolder green fluorescent protein (GFP) inserted between the ATP-binding helices of the ε-subunit of a bacterial F0-F1 ATPase. Optimizing the linkers joining the two domains resulted in a ~fivefold to sixfold improvement in the dynamic range compared to the previous-generation sensor, with excellent discrimination against other analytes, and affinity variants varying from 4 µM to 500 µM. A chimeric version of this sensor fused to either the HaloTag protein or a suitable spectrally separated fluorescent protein provides an optional ratiometric readout allowing comparisons of ATP across cellular regions. Subcellular targeting the sensor to nerve terminals reveals previously uncharacterized single-synapse metabolic signatures, while targeting to the mitochondrial matrix allowed direct quantitative probing of oxidative phosphorylation dynamics.

Single-chain fluorescent integrators for mapping G-protein-coupled receptor agonists.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transduce the effects of many neuromodulators including dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, acetylcholine, and opioids. The localization of synthetic or endogenous GPCR agonists impacts their action on specific neuronal pathways. In this paper, we show a series of single-protein chain integrator sensors that are highly modular and could potentially be used to determine GPCR agonist localization across the brain. We previously engineered integrator sensors for the mu- and kappa-opioid receptor agonists called M- and K-Single-chain Protein-based Opioid Transmission Indicator Tool (SPOTIT), respectively. Here, we engineered red versions of the SPOTIT sensors for multiplexed imaging of GPCR agonists. We also modified SPOTIT to create an integrator sensor design platform called SPOTIT for all GPCRs (SPOTall). We used the SPOTall platform to engineer sensors for the beta 2-adrenergic receptor (B2AR), the dopamine receptor D1, and the cholinergic receptor muscarinic 2 agonists. Finally, we demonstrated the application of M-SPOTIT and B2AR-SPOTall in detecting exogenously administered morphine, isoproterenol, and epinephrine in the mouse brain via locally injected viruses. The SPOTIT and SPOTall sensor design platform has the potential for unbiased agonist detection of many synthetic and endogenous neuromodulators across the brain.

Direct measurement of dynamic attractant gradients reveals breakdown of the Patlak-Keller-Segel chemotaxis model.

Chemotactic bacteria not only navigate chemical gradients, but also shape their environments by consuming and secreting attractants. Investigating how these processes influence the dynamics of bacterial populations has been challenging because of a lack of experimental methods for measuring spatial profiles of chemoattractants in real time. Here, we use a fluorescent sensor for aspartate to directly measure bacterially generated chemoattractant gradients during collective migration. Our measurements show that the standard Patlak-Keller-Segel model for collective chemotactic bacterial migration breaks down at high cell densities. To address this, we propose modifications to the model that consider the impact of cell density on bacterial chemotaxis and attractant consumption. With these changes, the model explains our experimental data across all cell densities, offering insight into chemotactic dynamics. Our findings highlight the significance of considering cell density effects on bacterial behavior, and the potential for fluorescent metabolite sensors to shed light on the complex emergent dynamics of bacterial communities.

A Highly Sensitive and Selective Fluorescent Sensor for Folic Acid Detection Based on D-penicillamine Stabilized Ag/Cu Alloy Nanoclusters.

In this work, a highly sensitive and selective method for detecting folic acid (FA) was developed using D-penicillamine (DPA) stabilized Ag/Cu alloy nanoclusters (DPA@Ag/Cu NCs). The yellow emission of DPA@Ag/Cu NCs was found to be quenched upon the addition of FA to the system. The fluorescence intensity quenching value demonstrated a linear relationship with FA concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 1200 µM, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 5.3 nM. Furthermore, the detection mechanism was investigated through various characterization analyses, including high resolution transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence spectra, ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra, and fluorescence lifetime. The results indicated that the fluorescence quenching induced by FA was a result of electron transfer from FA to the ligands of DPA@Ag/Cu NCs. The selectivity of the FA sensor was also evaluated, showing that common amino acids and inorganic ions had minimal impact on the detection of FA. Moreover, the standard addition method was successfully applied to detect FA in human serum, chewable tablets and FA tablets with promising results. The use of DPA@Ag/Cu NCs demonstrates significant potential for detecting FA in complex biological samples.

Lantern-type G-quadruplex fluorescent sensors for detecting divalent metal ions.

Three thioflavin T (ThT) derivatives, namely ThT/ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid conjugates (E1T, E2T, and E1T1P), were designed and synthesized as sensing components for divalent metal ion detection. Furthermore, these ThT derivatives were used to design lantern-type G-quadruplex (G4) fluorescent sensors. The fluorescence intensities of the ThT derivatives decreased by 1.2- to 5.6-folds in the presence of Ni2+ and Cu2+, respectively, regardless of the topology of the utilized G4. Conversely, when Mn2+ and Zn2+ coexisted in antiparallel G4, the fluorescence intensities of E2T increased to approximately 3.3- and 2.3-folds, respectively, depending on the concentration of the divalent metal ion, allowing for quantitative analyses. The Job plot analysis revealed that the binding ratio of G4 and E2T changed from 2:1 to 1:2 with the increasing concentration of the divalent metal ions. These results indicated that the basic principle of such a lantern-type G4 sensor can be applied to the detection of divalent metal ions and other types of targets, such as proteins, and small molecules via ThT derivatization.

o-phenylenediamine Derived Fluorescent Carbon Quantum dots for Detection of Hg(II) in Environmental Water.

With the expansion of human activities, the consequent influx of mercury (Hg) into the food chain and the environment is seriously threatening human life. Herein, nitrogen and sulfur co-doped fluorescent carbon quantum dots (yCQDs) were prepared via a hydrothermal method using o-phenylenediamine (OPD) and taurine as precursors. The morphological characteristics as well as spectral features of yCQDs indicated that the photoluminescence mechanism should be the molecular state fluorophores of 2, 3-diaminophenothiazine (oxOPD), which is the oxide of OPD. The as-synthesized yCQDs exhibited sensitive recognition of Hg2+. According to the investigation in combination of UV-Vis absorption spectra, time-resolved fluorescence spectra and quantum chemical calculations, the abundant functional groups on the surface of yCQDs allowed Hg2+ to bind with yCQDs through various interactions, and the formed complexes significantly inhibited the absorption of excitation light, resulting in the static fluorescence quenching of yCQDs. The proposed yCQDs was utilized for Hg2+ sensing with the limit of detection calculated to be 4.50 × 10- 8 M. Furthermore, the recognition ability of yCQDs for Hg2+ was estimated in tap water, lake water and bottled water, and the results indicated that yCQDs have potential applications in monitoring Hg2+.

Design and Application of Cu2+ Fluorescent Sensor Based on Carbazole Derivatives.

A novel fluorescent sensor for the detection of Cu2+ was developed based on carbazole derivatives. After the addition of Cu2+, the sensor exhibited obvious fluorescence quenching phenomenon, and the optical signal variation also enabled the sensor to quantitatively analyze Cu2+ due to the formation of a stable 1:1 metal-ligand complex in a short time. In addition, the sensor possessed chemical reversibility and pH stability. The cell imaging and zebra fish experiments also verified its application value in biological system.

Spectroscopic Investigation of Coumarin Based Novel Fluorescent TURN OFF Sensor for the Selective Detection of Fe3+: In-vitro Live Cell Imaging Application.

The novel TURN-OFF fluorescent sensors 4-(Benzo[1,3]dioxol-5-yloxymethyl)-7-hydroxy-chromen-2-one (4BHC) and 4-(6-Bromo-benzo[1,3]dioxol-5-yloxymethyl)-7-hydroxy-chromen-2-one (4BBHC) are designed and synthesized for the spectrofluorometric detection of the biologically important Fe3+ ions, which has sensitive and selective fluorescence quenching over other competitive metal ions. The effectiveness of the sensors and rapid response are validated through UV-Visible, and fluorescence spectral changes. These spectral changes could be due to the formation of coordination bond between ligand and metal ion. The binding stoichiometry of both sensors with Fe3+ ions is studied with the help of Job's plot, which gives a 1:2 coordination ratio; this is further confirmed through DFT, IR and NMR studies. The association constants of 4BHC and 4BBHC are calculated through Benesie-Hildebrand plots, and they are found to be 6 × 104 M-1 and 11.2 × 104 M-1 respectively. Following, LOD is calculated to define the range of sensitivity of the proposed sensors and is found to be 3.43 µM and 2.14 µM respectively. The chemical hardness parameter suggested that both sensors are soft molecules. In addition, low cytotoxicity levels of 4BHC and 4BBHC led to the demonstration of their efficacy in In-Vitro imaging of Fe3+ ions inside living cells, which ensures that these sensors are promising candidates for bioimaging.

Aggregation-induced Emission Active Naphthalimide Derived Schiff Base for Detecting Cu2+ and Its Applications.

Herein, an aggregation-induced emission (AIE) active Schiff base (NHS) was synthesized by condensing naphthalimide hydrazide with salicylaldehyde. The non-fluorescent solution of NHS in DMSO turned to emissive NHS upon increasing the HEPES fraction in DMSO from 70 to 95%. The UV-Vis absorption and DLS studies supported the self-aggregation of NHS that restricted the intramolecular rotation and activated the ESIPT process. The blue fluorescence of AIE luminogen NHS in DMSO:HEPES (5:95, v/v, pH = 7.4) was examined by adding different metal ions (Al3+, Ca2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Cu2+, Cr2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Hg2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+). NHS showed a selective fluorescence switch-off response for Cu2+ due to the chelation enhancement quenching effect (CHEQ). The quenching of NHS by Cu2+ was explored by using density functional theory (DFT) and Stern-Volmer plot. The practical utility of NHS was examined by quantitative and qualitative analysis of Cu2+ in real water samples.

Novel An Efficient Fluorescent Probe Based on Calix[4]triazacrown-5 With Naphthalimide Group for Co2+, Cd2+ and Dopamine Detection.

A novel naphthalimide-substituted calix[4]triazacrown-5 (Nap-Calix) at cone conformation was designed and synthesized to employ as a fluorescent probe, which enables the simultaneously detection of Co2+ and Cd2+ metal ions as well as dopamine (DA). 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, ESI-MS and elemental analysis techniques were carried out to characterize its structure. Cation binding property of Nap-Calix against various metal ions such as Ba2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, and Cd2+ exhibited that the sensor selectively binds to Co2+ and Cd2+ metal ions with a remarkable affinity. Introduction of Co2+ and Cd2+ metal ions to a solution of Nap-Calix in DMF/water (1:1, v/v) resulted with a new emission band at 370 nm when excited at 283 nm. In addition, the fluorescence sensing affinity of the probe Nap-Calix against a catecholamine neurotransmitter (dopamine) was investigated in a wide range of concentration of DA (0-0.1 mmol L-1) in 50% DMF/PBS (pH = 5.0). The fluorescence intensity of Nap-Calix, with excitation/emission peaks at 283/327 nm, is highly enhanced by DA. It was also observed that Nap-Calix exhibits excellent fluorescence behavior towards DA with a very low detection limit as 0.21 µmol L-1.

Hazardous 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol (TNP) Detection in Water by Amine and Azine Functionalized Metal-Organic Framework.

A Zn(II)-based metal-organic framework (MOF) decorated with amine and azine functionalities, TMU-17-NH2 (formulated as [Zn(H2ata)(L)].2DMF; L = 1,4-bis(4-pyridyl)-2,3-diaza-2,3-butadiene and H2ata = 2-aminoterephthalic acid) has been successfully synthesized via a solvothermal method. According to crystallographic studies, the synthesized TMU-17-NH2 has three dimensional cuboidal structure with the pore surface decorated with free amine (-NH2) and azine (= N-N =) functional groups. The photoluminescence investigations proved that the synthesized MOF can be effectively utilized for selective detection of 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP) in water with an apparent turn-off quenching response. Its limits of detection (LOD) for TNP was 9.4 ppb and competitive nitro explosive testing confirmed its higher selectivity towards TNP (over other nitro explosives). Calculations based on density functional theory (DFT) and spectrum overlap were utilized to evaluate the sensing mechanisms. This MOF-based fluorescence sensing technique for TNP had a high sensitivity (Ksv = 3.26 × 104 M-1).

Chemical sensors detect and resolve proteome aggregation in peripheral neuropathy cell model induced by chemotherapeutic agents.

As a consequence of somatosensory nervous system injury or disease, neuropathic pain is commonly associated with chemotherapies, known as chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). However, the mechanisms underlying CIPN-induced proteome aggregation in neuronal cells remain elusive due to limited detection tools. Herein, we present series sensors for fluorescence imaging (AggStain) and proteomics analysis (AggLink) to visualize and capture aggregated proteome in CIPN neuronal cell model. The environment-sensitive AggStain imaging sensor selectively binds and detects protein aggregation with 12.3 fold fluorescence enhancement. Further, the covalent AggLink proteomic sensor captures cellular aggregated proteins and profiles their composition via LC-MS/MS analysis. This integrative sensor platform reveals the presence of proteome aggregation in CIPN cell model and highlights its potential for broader applications in assessing proteome stability under various cellular stress conditions.

A highly sensitive fluorescence sensor for tobacco mosaic virus RNA based on DSN cycle and ARGET ATRP double signal amplification.

Early and sensitive detection of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is of great significance for improving crop yield and protecting germplasm resources. Herein, we constructed a novel fluorescence sensor to detect TMV RNA (tRNA) through double strand specific nuclease (DSN) cycle and activator regenerative electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization (ARGET ATRP) dual signal amplification strategy. The hairpin DNA complementarily paired with tRNA was used as a recognition unit to specifically capture tRNA. By the double-stranded DNA hydrolyzed with DSN, tRNA is released to open more hairpin DNA, and more complementary DNA (cDNA) is bound to the surface of the magnetic beads (MBs) to achieve the first amplification. After binding with the initiator, the cDNA employed ARGET ATRP to attach more fluorescent signal molecules to the surface of MBs, thus achieving the second signal amplification. Under the optimal experimental conditions, the logarithm of fluorescence intensity versus tRNA concentration showed a good linear relationship in the range of 0.01-100 pM, with a detection limit of 1.03 fM. The limit of detection (LOD) was calculated according to LOD = 3 N/S. Besides, the sensor showed good reproducibility and stability, which present provided new method for early and highly sensitive detection for plant viruses.

A molecularly imprinted ratiometric fluorescent sensor for visual detection of 1-naphthol based on fluorescence-enhanced CdTeS QDs via APTES modification.

CdTeS quantum dots (CdTeS QDs) were synthesized using the hydrothermal method and subsequently modified with (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES). This modification resulted in a significant enhancement of the fluorescence intensity, which was observed to be five times stronger than that of unmodified CdTeS QDs at 597 nm. Only after the fluorescence enhancement by APTES modification, the material showed a response to 1-naphthol (1-NP). Based on this, the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) with ratiometric fluorescence were developed for the detection of 1-NP, that is, the synthetic raw material and the metabolite of the pesticide carbaryl. Under the excitation of 365 nm UV, the bright orange-red fluorescence (597 nm) of CdTeS QDs encapsulated in MIPs was quenched by 1-NP in the suspension, and 1-NP showed a gradually increasing blue emission (460 nm) with the increase of its concentration. This sensor has a good linear relationship between fluorescence intensity ratio (F460/F597) and 1-NP concentration (C1-NP) in a large concentration range (6.0-140.0 µM, LOD=0.45 µM, RSD<4.41%). It exhibits a visible fluorescence change from orange-red to blue-purple. Excellent recoveries in real samples were obtained by simulating carbaryl metabolism and demonstrated its potential in detection of 1-NP and carbaryl.

3D printing-based lateral flow visual assay utilizing the dual-excitation property of nitrogen-doped carbon dots for the ratiometric determination and chemometric discrimination of flavonoids.

A ratiometric fluorescence sensor has been established based on dual-excitation carbon dots (D-CDs) for the detection of flavonoids (morin is chosen as the typical detecting model for flavonoids). D-CDs were prepared using microwave radiation with o-phenylenediamine and melamine and exhibit controllable dual-excitation behavior through the regulation of their concentration. Remarkably, the short-wavelength excitation of D-CDs can be quenched by morin owing to the inner filter effect, while the long-wavelength excitation remains insensitive, serving as the reference signal. This contributes to the successful design of an excitation-based ratiometric sensor. Based on the distinct and differentiated variation of excitation intensity, morin can be determined from 0.156 to 110 µM with a low detection limit of 0.156 µM. In addition, an intelligent and visually lateral flow sensing device is developed for the determination  of morin content in real samples with satisfying recoveries, which indicates the potential application for human health monitoring.

A new three-dimensional (3D) molecularly imprinted polymer fluoroprobe based on green-red dual-emission signals of carbon quantum dots and self-polymerization of dopamine (CDs@PDA-MIPs) for sensitive detection of nifedipine.

Nifedipine (NIF), as one of the dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, is widely used in the treatment of hypertension. However, misuse or ingestion of NIF can result in serious health issues such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, stroke, and even death. It is essential to design a reliable and sensitive detection method to monitor NIF. In this work, an innovative molecularly imprinted polymer dual-emission fluorescent sensor (CDs@PDA-MIPs) strategy was successfully designed for sensitive detection of NIF. The fluorescent intensity of the probe decreased with increasing NIF concentration, showing a satisfactory linear relationship within the range 1.0 × 10-6 M ~ 5.0 × 10-3 M. The LOD of NIF was 9.38 × 10-7 M (S/N = 3) in fluorescence detection. The application of the CDs@PDA-MIPs in actual samples such as urine and Qiangli Dingxuan tablets has been verified, with recovery ranging from 97.8 to 102.8% for NIF. Therefore, the fluorescent probe demonstrates great potential as a sensing system for detecting NIF.

Displacement Assay in a Polythiophene Sensor System Based on Supramacromolecuar Disassembly-Caused Emission Quenching.

Exploring new methodologies for simple and on-demand methods of manipulating the emission and sensing ability of fluorescence sensor devices with solid-state emission molecular systems is important for realizing on-site sensing platforms. In this regard, although conjugated polymers (CPs) are some of the best candidates for preparing molecular sensor devices owing to their luminescent and molecular recognition properties, the development of CP-based sensor devices is still in its early stages. In this study, we herein propose a novel strategy for preparing a chemical stimuli-responsive solid-state emission system based on supramacromolecular assembly-induced emission enhancement (SmAIEE). The system was spontaneously developed by mixing only the component polymers (i.e., polythiophene and a transient cross-linking polymer). The proposed strategy can be applied to the facile preparation of molecular sensor devices. The analyte-induced fluorescent response of polythiophene originated from the dynamic displacement of the transient cross-linker in the polythiophene ensemble and the generation of the polythiophene-analyte complex. Our successful demonstration of the spontaneous preparation of the fluorescence sensor system by mixing two component polymers could lead to the development of on-site molecular analyzers including the determination of multiple analytes.

Fluorescent Sensor Based on 1H-Pyrazolo[3,4-b]quinoline Derivative for Detecting Zn2+ Cations.

The photophysical and sensory properties of the donor-acceptor pyrazoloquinoline derivative (PQPc) were investigated using absorption, steady-state, and time-resolved fluorescence measurements. The compound synthesized from commercial, readily available substrates exhibited absorptions in the UV-Vis range, with a maximum of the longwave band around 390 nm. The maximum fluorescence was around 460-480 nm, depending on the solvent. The quantum yield was between 12.87% (for n-hexane) and 0.75% (for acetonitrile) and decreased with increasing solvent polarity. The PET mechanism was implicated as the cause of fluorescence quenching. Divalent ions such as Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Co2+, Ni2+, and Cu2+ were introduced to study the fluorescent response of PQPc. A 13-times increase in fluorescence quantum yield was observed after the addition of Zn2+ ions. Detailed research was carried out for the PQPc-Zn2+ system in order to check the possibility of analytical applications of PQPc as a fluorescent sensor. A detection limit of Zn2+ was set at the value level 1.93 × 10-7 M. PQPc-Zn2+ complexes had a stoichiometry of 1:1 with a binding constant of 859 M-1. Biological studies showed that the sensor was localized in cells near the membrane and cytoplasm and may be used to detect zinc ions in eukaryotic cells.

Enantiopure Corral[4]BINOLs as Ultrastrong Receptors for Recognition and Differential Sensing of Steroids.

The precise recognition and sensing of steroids, a type of vital biomolecules, hold immense practical value across various domains. In this study, we introduced corral[4]BINOLs (C[4]BINOLs), a pair of enantiomeric conjugated deep-cavity hosts, as novel synthetic receptors for binding steroids. Due to the strong hydrophobic effect of their deep nonpolar, chiral cavities, the two enantiomers of C[4]BINOLs demonstrated exceptionally high recognition affinities (up to 1012 M-1) for 16 important steroidal compounds as well as good enantioselectiviy (up to 15.5) in aqueous solutions, establishing them as the most potent known steroid receptors. Harnessing their ultrahigh affinity, remarkable enantioselectivity, and fluorescence emission properties, the two C[4]BINOL enantiomers were employed to compose a fluorescent sensor array which achieved discrimination and sensing of 16 structurally similar steroids at low concentrations.