NLR signaling in plants: from resistosomes to second messengers.

Nucleotide binding and leucine-rich repeat-containing receptors (NLRs) have a critical role in plant immunity through direct or indirect recognition of pathogen effectors. Recent studies have demonstrated that such recognition induces formation of large protein complexes called resistosomes to mediate NLR immune signaling. Some NLR resistosomes activate Ca2+ influx by acting as Ca2+-permeable channels, whereas others function as active NADases to catalyze the production of nucleotide-derived second messengers. In this review we summarize these studies on pathogen effector-induced assembly of NLR resistosomes and resistosome-mediated production of the second messengers of Ca2+ and nucleotide derivatives. We also discuss downstream events and regulation of resistosome signaling.

Commercially traded fish portfolios mask household utilization of biodiversity in wild food systems.

The global biodiversity that underpins wild food systems-including fisheries-is rapidly declining. Yet, we often have only a limited understanding of how households use and benefit from biodiversity in the ecosystems surrounding them. Explicating these relationships is critical to forestall and mitigate the effects of biodiversity declines on food and nutrition security. Here, we quantify how biodiversity filters from ecosystems to household harvest, consumption, and sale, and how ecological traits and household characteristics shape these relationships. We used a unique, integrated ecological (40 sites, quarterly data collection) and household survey (n = 414, every 2 mo data collection) dataset collected over 3 y in rice field fisheries surrounding Cambodia's Tonlé Sap, one of Earth's most productive and diverse freshwater systems. While ecosystem biodiversity was positively associated with household catch, consumption, and sold biodiversity, households consumed an average of 43% of the species present in the ecosystem and sold only 9%. Larger, less nutritious, and more common species were disproportionally represented in portfolios of commercially traded species, while consumed species mirrored catches. The relationship between ecosystem and consumed biodiversity was remarkably consistent across variation in household fishing effort, demographics, and distance to nearest markets. Poorer households also consumed more species, underscoring how wild food systems may most benefit the vulnerable. Our findings amplify concerns about the impacts of biodiversity loss on our global food systems and highlight that utilization of biodiversity for consumption may far exceed what is commercially traded.

Perspectives on improving crop Rubisco by directed evolution.

Rubisco catalyses the entry of almost all CO2 into the biosphere and is often the rate-limiting step in plant photosynthesis and growth. Its notoriety as the most abundant protein on Earth stems from the slow and error-prone catalytic properties that require plants, cyanobacteria, algae and photosynthetic bacteria to produce it in high amounts. Efforts to improve the CO2-fixing properties of plant Rubisco has been spurred on by the discovery of more effective isoforms in some algae with the potential to significantly improve crop productivity. Incompatibilities between the protein folding machinery of leaf and algae chloroplasts have, so far, prevented efforts to transplant these more effective Rubisco variants into plants. There is therefore increasing interest in improving Rubisco catalysis by directed (laboratory) evolution. Here we review the advances being made in, and the ongoing challenges with, improving the solubility and/or carboxylation activity of differing non-plant Rubisco lineages. We provide perspectives on new opportunities for the directed evolution of crop Rubiscos and the existing plant transformation capabilities available to evaluate the extent to which Rubisco activity improvements can benefit agricultural productivity.

Avoiding an unjust transition to sustainability: An equity metric for spatial conservation planning.

The need for rapid and ambitious conservation and restoration is widely acknowledged, yet concern exists that the widespread reallocation of land to nature would disproportionately affect the world's poor. Conservation and restoration may limit nutrition and livelihood options and thus negatively affect social development objectives. Although much research looks into global-scale scenarios and planning of conservation and restoration, spatial evaluations of these trade-offs in terms of equity remain limited. We fill this gap by identifying areas where conservation or restoration under different future scenarios and prioritization maps expand nature into landscapes that likely support land-dependent communities in their local food security. By contrasting the expansion of nature into areas supporting land-dependent communities vs. places where the food system is supported by regional to global markets, we highlight the need for disaggregated indicators that reflect the diversity of human land-use needs in order to identify more equitable pathways. Conservation prioritizations were found to result in more equitable land-use outcomes than the land-use outcomes of widely used socioeconomic scenarios. Accounting for differentiated social impacts in model-based conservation and restoration planning and global scale scenario assessment can help achieve a more inclusive transition to sustainability as well as reduce barriers to meaningful change.

The productive performance of intercropping.

Crop diversification has been put forward as a way to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture without penalizing its productivity. In this context, intercropping, the planned combination of two or more crop species in one field, is a promising practice. On an average, intercropping saves land compared with the component sole crops, but it remains unclear whether intercropping produces a higher yield than the most productive single crop per unit area, i.e., whether intercropping achieves transgressive overyielding. Here, we quantified the performance of intercropping for the production of grain, calories, and protein in a global meta-analysis of several production indices. The results show that intercrops outperform sole crops when the objective is to achieve a diversity of crop products on a given land area. However, when intercropping is evaluated for its ability to produce raw products without concern for diversity, intercrops on average generate a small loss in grain or calorie yield compared with the most productive sole crop (-4%) but achieve similar or higher protein yield, especially with maize/legume combinations grown at moderate N supply. Overall, although intercropping does not achieve transgressive overyielding on average, our results show that intercropping performs well in producing a diverse set of crop products and performs almost similar to the most productive component sole crop to produce raw products, while improving crop resilience, enhancing ecosystem services, and improving nutrient use efficiency. Our study, therefore, confirms the great interest of intercropping for the development of a more sustainable agricultural production, supporting diversified diets.

Investing in mini-livestock production for food security and carbon neutrality in China.

Future food farming technology faces challenges that must integrate the core goal of keeping the global temperature increase within 1.5 °C without reducing food security and nutrition. Here, we show that boosting the production of insects and earthworms based on food waste and livestock manure to provide food and feed in China will greatly contribute to meeting the country's food security and carbon neutrality pledges. By substituting domestic products with mini-livestock (defined as earthworms and insects produced for food or feed) protein and utilizing the recovered land for bioenergy production plus carbon capture and storage, China's agricultural sector could become carbon-neutral and reduce feed protein imports to near zero. This structural change may lead to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 2,350 Tg CO2eq per year globally when both domestic and imported products are substituted. Overall, the success of mini-livestock protein production in achieving carbon neutrality and food security for China and its major trading partners depends on how the substitution strategies will be implemented and how the recovered agricultural land will be managed, e.g., free use for afforestation and bioenergy or by restricting this land to food crop use. Using China as an example, this study also demonstrates the potential of mini-livestock for decreasing the environmental burden of food production in general.

Assessing the costs of ozone pollution in India for wheat producers, consumers, and government food welfare policies.

We assess wheat yield losses occurring due to ozone pollution in India and its economic burden on producers, consumers, and the government. Applying an ozone flux-based risk assessment, we show that ambient ozone levels caused a mean 14.18% reduction in wheat yields during 2008 to 2012. Furthermore, irrigated wheat was particularly sensitive to ozone-induced yield losses, indicating that ozone pollution could undermine climate-change adaptation efforts through irrigation expansion. Applying an economic model, we examine the effects of a counterfactual, "pollution-free" scenario on yield losses, wheat prices, consumer and producer welfare, and government costs. We explore three policy scenarios in which the government support farmers at observed levels of either procurement prices (fixed-price), procurement quantities (fixed-procurement), or procurement expenditure (fixed-expenditure). In pollution-free conditions, the fixed-price scenario absorbs the fall in prices, thus increasing producer welfare by USD 2.7 billion, but total welfare decreases by USD 0.24 billion as government costs increase (USD 2.9 billion). In the fixed-procurement and fixed-expenditure scenarios, ozone mitigation allows wheat prices to fall by 38.19 to 42.96%. The producers lose by USD 5.10 to 6.01 billion, but the gains to consumers and governments (USD 8.7 to 10.2 billion) outweigh these losses. These findings show that the government and consumers primarily bear the costs of ozone pollution. For pollution mitigation to optimally benefit wheat production and maximize social welfare, new approaches to support producers other than fixed-price grain procurement may be required. We also emphasize the need to consider air pollution in programs to improve agricultural resilience to climate change.

The impact of flooding on food security across Africa.

Recent record rainfall and flood events have prompted increased attention to flood impacts on human systems. Information regarding flood effects on food security is of particular importance for humanitarian organizations and is especially valuable across Africa's rural areas that contribute to regional food supplies. We quantitatively evaluate where and to what extent flooding impacts food security across Africa, using a Granger causality analysis and panel modeling approaches. Within our modeled areas, we find that ∼12% of the people that experienced food insecurity from 2009 to 2020 had their food security status affected by flooding. Furthermore, flooding and its associated meteorological conditions can simultaneously degrade food security locally while enhancing it at regional spatial scales, leading to large variations in overall food security outcomes. Dedicated data collection at the intersection of flood events and associated food security measures across different spatial and temporal scales are required to better characterize the extent of flood impact and inform preparedness, response, and recovery needs.

Food is Medicine for HIV: Improved health and hospitalizations in the Changing Health through Food Support (CHEFS-HIV) pragmatic randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Policy support for "Food is Medicine"-medically tailored meals or groceries to improve health-is rapidly growing. No randomized trials have heretofore investigated the benefits of medically tailored food programs for people living with HIV (PLHIV). METHODS: The CHEFS-HIV pragmatic randomized trial included PLHIV who were clients of Project Open Hand (POH), a San Francisco-based nonprofit food organization. The intervention arm (n = 93) received comprehensive medically tailored meals, groceries, and nutritional education. Control participants (n = 98) received less intensive (POH "standard of care") food services. Health, nutrition, and behavioral outcomes were assessed at baseline and 6 months later. Primary outcomes measured were viral non-suppression and health related quality of life. Mixed models estimated treatment effects as differences-in-differences between arms. RESULTS: The intervention arm had lower odds of hospitalization (odds ratio [OR] = 0.11), food insecurity (OR = 0.23), depressive symptoms (OR = 0.32), antiretroviral therapy adherence <90% (OR = 0.18), and unprotected sex (OR = 0.18), and less fatty food consumption (ß= -0.170 servings/day) over 6 months, compared to the control arm. There was no difference between study arms in viral non-suppression and health-related quality of life over 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: A "Food-is-Medicine" intervention reduced hospitalizations and improved mental and physical health among PLHIV, despite no impact on viral suppression. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT03191253.

Food Insecurity at Tuberculosis Treatment Initiation Is Associated With Clinical Outcomes in Rural Haiti: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis is a leading cause of death worldwide, and food insecurity is known to negatively influence health outcomes through multiple pathways. Few studies have interrogated the relationship between food insecurity and tuberculosis outcomes, particularly independent of nutrition. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of adults initiating first-line treatment for clinically suspected or microbiologically confirmed drug-sensitive tuberculosis at a rural referral center in Haiti. We administered a baseline questionnaire, collected clinical data, and analyzed laboratory samples. We used logistic regression models to estimate the relationship between household food insecurity (Household Hunger Scale) and treatment failure or death. We accounted for exclusion of patients lost to follow-up using inverse probability of censoring weighting and adjusted for measured confounders and nutritional status using inverse probability of treatment weighting. RESULTS: We enrolled 257 participants (37% female) between May 2020 and March 2023 with a median age (interquartile range) of 35 (25-45) years. Of these, 105 (41%) had no hunger in the household, 104 (40%) had moderate hunger in the household, and 48 (19%) had severe hunger in the household. Eleven participants (4%) died, and 6 (3%) had treatment failure. After adjustment, food insecurity was significantly associated with subsequent treatment failure or death (odds ratio 5.78 [95% confidence interval, 1.20-27.8]; P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: Household food insecurity at tuberculosis treatment initiation was significantly associated with death or treatment failure after accounting for loss to follow-up, measured confounders, and nutritional status. In addition to the known importance of undernutrition, our findings indicate that food insecurity independently affects tuberculosis treatment outcomes in Haiti.

Fast-forward breeding for a food-secure world.

Crop production systems need to expand their outputs sustainably to feed a burgeoning human population. Advances in genome sequencing technologies combined with efficient trait mapping procedures accelerate the availability of beneficial alleles for breeding and research. Enhanced interoperability between different omics and phenotyping platforms, leveraged by evolving machine learning tools, will help provide mechanistic explanations for complex plant traits. Targeted and rapid assembly of beneficial alleles using optimized breeding strategies and precise genome editing techniques could deliver ideal crops for the future. Realizing desired productivity gains in the field is imperative for securing an adequate future food supply for 10 billion people.

Harnessing the potential of mutation breeding, CRISPR genome editing, and beyond for sustainable agriculture.

By 2050, the global population is projected to exceed 9.5 billion, posing a formidable challenge to ensure food security worldwide. To address this pressing issue, mutation breeding in horticultural crops, utilizing physical or chemical methods, has emerged as a promising biotechnological strategy. However, the efficacy of these mutagens can be influenced by various factors, including biological and environmental variables, as well as targeted plant materials. This review highlights the global challenges related to food security and explores the potential of mutation breeding as an indispensable biotechnological tool in overcoming food insecurity. This review also covers the emergence of CRISPR-Cas9, a breakthrough technology offering precise genome editing for the development of high-yield, stress-tolerant crops. Together, mutation breeding and CRISPR can potentially address future food demands. This review focuses into these biotechnological advancements, emphasizing their combined potential to fortify global food security in the face of a booming population.

Effects of Food Insecurity on Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis in People With HIV.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Food insecurity (FI) is a risk factor for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and advanced fibrosis in the general population, but its impact on liver disease in people with HIV (PWH) is unknown. METHODS: We examined the association of FI with prevalence of NAFLD and fibrosis in a diverse cohort of PWH. PWH aged ≥ 18 years on antiretroviral therapy, HIV RNA <200 copies/mL, and without other known liver diseases were screened for NAFLD (controlled attenuated parameter ≥263 decibels/meter) and advanced fibrosis (liver stiffness measurement ≥11 kilopascals) by vibration controlled transient elastography at 8 U.S. CENTERS: Participants were categorized as food insecure using the Six-Item Short Form Household Food Security Survey. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of NAFLD and advanced fibrosis by FI status. RESULTS: Among 654 PWH, NAFLD was present in 348 (53%) and advanced fibrosis in 41 (6%). FI was present in 203 of participants (31%), including 97/348 with NAFLD (28%) and 18/41 with advanced fibrosis (44%). In multivariable analysis, FI was associated with lower odds of NAFLD (OR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.37-0.88) and a greater, but nonsignificant, odds of advanced fibrosis (OR, 1.38; 95% CI, 0.65-2.90). We identified a significant interaction between FI and diabetes (P = .02) on fibrosis risk, with greater odds of fibrosis among food insecure PWH and diabetes (OR, 3.83; 95% CI, 1.15-12.73) but not among food insecure nondiabetics (OR, 1.12; 95% CI, 0.47-2.98). CONCLUSIONS: FI is highly prevalent among PWH and associated with lower odds of NAFLD, and among PWH with diabetes, there is greater odds of advanced fibrosis. FI may contribute to hepatic fibrosis through mechanisms other than steatosis in PWH.

Genome-wide association analysis and transgenic characterization for amylose content regulating gene in tuber of Dioscorea zingiberensis.

BACKGROUND: Amylose, a prebiotic found in yams is known to be beneficial for the gut microflora and is particularly advantageous for diabetic patients' diet. However, the genetic machinery underlying amylose production remains elusive. A comprehensive characterization of the genetic basis of amylose content in yam tubers is a prerequisite for accelerating the genetic engineering of yams with respect to amylose content variation. RESULTS: To uncover the genetic variants underlying variation in amylose content, we evaluated amylose content in freshly harvested tubers from 150 accessions of Dioscorea zingibensis. With 30,000 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), we performed a genome-wide association analysis (GWAS). The population structure analysis classified the D. zingiberensis accessions into three groups. A total of 115 significant loci were detected on four chromosomes. Of these, 112 significant SNPs (log10(p) = 5, q-value < 0.004) were clustered in a narrow window on the chromosome 6 (chr6). The peak SNP at the position 75,609,202 on chr6 could explain 63.15% of amylose variation in the population and fell into the first exon of the ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) small subunit gene, causing a non-synonymous modification of the resulting protein sequence. Allele segregation analysis showed that accessions with the rare G allele had a higher amylose content than those harboring the common A allele. However, AGPase, a key enzyme precursor of amylose biosynthesis, was not expressed differentially between accessions with A and G alleles. Overexpression of the two variants of AGPase in Arabidopsis thaliana resulted in a significantly higher amylose content in lines transformed with the AGPase-G allele. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this study showed that a major genetic variant in AGPase probably enhances the enzyme activity leading to high amylose content in D. zingiberensis tuber. The results provide valuable insights for the development of amylose-enriched genotypes.

Functional insight into multi-omics-based interventions for climatic resilience in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): a nutritionally rich cereal crop.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The article highlights omics-based interventions in sorghum to combat food and nutritional scarcity in the future. Sorghum with its unique ability to thrive in adverse conditions, has become a tremendous highly nutritive, and multipurpose cereal crop. It is resistant to various types of climatic stressors which will pave its way to a future food crop. Multi-omics refers to the comprehensive study of an organism at multiple molecular levels, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Genomic studies have provided insights into the genetic diversity of sorghum and led to the development of genetically improved sorghum. Transcriptomics involves analysing the gene expression patterns in sorghum under various conditions. This knowledge is vital for developing crop varieties with enhanced stress tolerance. Proteomics enables the identification and quantification of the proteins present in sorghum. This approach helps in understanding the functional roles of specific proteins in response to stress and provides insights into metabolic pathways that contribute to resilience and grain production. Metabolomics studies the small molecules, or metabolites, produced by sorghum, provides information about the metabolic pathways that are activated or modified in response to environmental stress. This knowledge can be used to engineer sorghum varieties with improved metabolic efficiency, ultimately leading to better crop yields. In this review, we have focused on various multi-omics approaches, gene expression analysis, and different pathways for the improvement of Sorghum. Applying omics approaches to sorghum research allows for a holistic understanding of its genome function. This knowledge is invaluable for addressing challenges such as climate change, resource limitations, and the need for sustainable agriculture.

Drought resistance strategies in minor millets: a review.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The review discusses growth and drought-response mechanisms in minor millets under three themes: drought escape, drought avoidance and drought tolerance. Drought is one of the most prominent abiotic stresses impacting plant growth, performance, and productivity. In the context of climate change, the prevalence and severity of drought is expected to increase in many agricultural regions worldwide. Millets (coarse grains) are a group of small-seeded grasses cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions throughout the world and are an important source of food and feed for humans and livestock. Although minor millets, i.e., foxtail millet, finger millet, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet and little millet are generally hardier and more drought-resistant than cereals and major millets (sorghum and pearl millet), understanding their responses, processes and strategies in response to drought is more limited. Here, we review drought resistance strategies in minor millets under three themes: drought escape (e.g., short crop cycle, short vegetative period, developmental plasticity and remobilization of assimilates), drought avoidance (e.g., root traits for better water absorption and leaf traits to control water loss), and drought tolerance (e.g., osmotic adjustment, maintenance of photosynthetic ability and antioxidant potential). Data from 'omics' studies are summarized to provide an overview of the molecular mechanisms important in drought tolerance. In addition, the final section highlights knowledge gaps and challenges to improving minor millets. This review is intended to enhance major cereals and millet per se in light of climate-related increases in aridity.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) enhancement through genomic resources and breeding methods: current implications and potential future interventions.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is an essential staple crop in many regions of Africa and Asia, valued for its nutritional content and resilience in challenging agro-ecological conditions. The enhancement of finger millet through genomic resources and breeding methods represents a promising avenue for addressing food and nutritional security. Current efforts in this field have harnessed genomic technologies to decipher the crop's genetic diversity and identify key traits related to yield, disease resistance, and nutritional content. These insights have facilitated the development of improved varieties through selective breeding, accelerating the crop's adaptation to changing environmental conditions. In the future, continued advancements in genomics and breeding methodologies hold the potential to further enhance finger millet's resilience, nutritional value, and productivity, ultimately benefiting both farmers and consumers. This review article synthesizes the current state of research and development in finger millet enhancement through the integration of genomic resources and innovative breeding methods. The utilization of these insights in selective breeding has already yielded promising results in developing improved finger millet varieties that meet the evolving needs of farmers and consumers. Moreover, this article discusses potential future interventions, including the continued advancement of genomics, precision breeding, and sustainable agricultural practices. These interventions hold the promise of further enhancing finger millet's adaptability to changing climates, its nutritional quality, and its overall productivity, thereby contributing to food security and improved livelihoods in finger millet-dependent regions.

Food security among black breast cancer survivors in Maryland: insights from an online pilot study.

PURPOSE: Food security, and reliable access to nutritious food, is essential for maintaining health yet remains elusive for many, including U.S. patients with breast cancer (BC). Research specifically focusing on public health consequences of food insecurity in BC survivors is limited. We addressed this gap by exploring the relationship between food security and various sociodemographic, clinical, and cancer-related factors among Black BC survivors in Maryland. METHODS: The parent study engaged Black female BC survivors in Maryland through digital campaigns and referrals, achieving 100 completed surveys. Food security was assessed through an online follow-up survey with the six-item short form from U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), leading to a binary classification for analysis from raw scores. Statistical analysis involved descriptive analysis and Chi-square tests to explore the relationship between food security status, various BC risk factors, and follow-up survey response status. RESULTS: Of the 31 participants who participated in the follow-up survey, 11 (35.5%) were categorized as having low food security. We observed significant associations between food security status and both income (< $40,000; chi-square p = 0.004) and education levels (high school/GED; chi-square p = 0.004). In comparing respondents to non-respondents, significant differences in employment (p = 0.031) and health insurance status (p = 0.006) were observed. CONCLUSION: Our descriptive findings demonstrate the importance of further studies evaluating food security screenings in Black BC survivors to enable targeted interventions aiming to improve overall health outcomes and equity in cancer survivorship care.

Longitudinal study of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on diet and physical activity among Latinos of Mexican ancestry.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic caused societal disruption in the United States and most of the world, affecting many aspects of life, including healthcare and health-related behaviors such as diet, food security, and physical activity. Communities with economic and health disparities may have been particularly affected. This study was undertaken to determine how conditions in the early pandemic (January, 2021-February, 2022) affected Latino patients of Mexican Ancestry at high risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus who participated in El Banco por Salud biobank project in Tucson, Arizona. METHODS: Baseline, prepandemic measurements were available in 17, 21, and 60 patients with normal hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), prediabetes, and type 2 diabetes, respectively. RESULTS: People with healthy HbA1c were significantly younger, less obese, and had higher HDL cholesterol. HbA1c was unaffected by the pandemic in any group. Triglycerides, total and HDL cholesterol levels fell in all groups during the pandemic. Physical activity levels in all groups were remarkably low, with most reporting no engagement in any voluntary physical activity. Engagement in physical activity or its enjoyment was lower in patients with diabetes and prediabetes than in younger, less obese patients. Major diet differences were between men and women and were present before the pandemic. Women consumed significantly more vegetables, fruit, and salad than men. The only pandemic-related change in diet was a drop in egg consumption, possibly explaining the fall in total cholesterol. CONCLUSION: Societal disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic had minimal effects on adverse health-related behaviors, cardiometabolic risk, or changes in glycemic control in a Latino community with diabetes and healthcare disparities in the Southwest US.

Assessing and Monitoring Nutrition Security to Promote Healthy Dietary Intake and Outcomes in the United States.

The US Department of Agriculture's Economic Research Service leads the federal government in data development and research on food security in US households. Nutrition security is an emerging concept that, although closely related, is distinct from food security. No standard conceptualization or measure of nutrition security currently exists. We review the existing research on nutrition security and how it is informed by the more robust literature on food security and diet quality. Based on this review, we propose a conceptual framework for understanding nutrition security and its relationship to food security. We identify two constructs (healthy diets and nutritional status) and multiple subconstructs that form the basis of nutrition security. The proposed framework and corresponding constructs are intended to provide (a) understanding of how nutrition security arises and how it differs from food security, (b) background on why assessment and monitoring of nutrition security is important, and (c) guidance for a research agenda that will further clarify the meaning of nutrition security and its measurement.